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J. Anim Sci. 2008. 86:584-591. doi:10.2527/jas.2007-0377
© 2008 American Society of Animal Science
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ANIMAL NUTRITION

An evaluation of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) and synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E fortification in the diet or drinking water of weanling pigs1,2,3

E. E. Wilburn*, D. C. Mahan*,4, D. A. Hill{dagger}, T. E. Shipp{dagger},5 and H. Yang{dagger}

* The Ohio State University, The Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Columbus 43210-1095; and {dagger} ADM Alliance Nutrition Inc., Quincy, IL 62301


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
Three experiments conducted with weanling pigs evaluated the effects of vitamin E added to the drinking water or diet on plasma and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations. When natural or synthetic vitamin E was used, it was added at an IU-equivalent basis, but natural vitamin E was 73.5% (mg basis) of the synthetic vitamin E. Experiment 1 used 18-d-old weanling pigs (n = 120) in a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments in a randomized complete block design with 4 replicates. The first factor evaluated the dietary levels of natural vitamin E (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) added at 0, 50, or 300 IU/kg, whereas the second factor was the natural vitamin E added to the drinking water at 0 or 100 IU/L. Pigs were bled at periodic intervals, and 1 pig per pen was killed at the end of the 21-d trial and tissues (liver, heart, lung, and loin) were collected for {alpha}-tocopherol analysis. When vitamin E was not added to the diet or water, plasma {alpha}-tocopherol declined over the 21-d period. Although there were some interactions (P < 0.01), tissue and plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations increased linearly when vitamin E was added to the diet or water. Experiment 2 was a 3 x 2 factorial in a randomized complete block design with 4 replicates. A total of 96 pigs weaned at 18 d of age, with an initial BW of 6.2 kg, were fed a nonvitamin E fortified diet, but natural or synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E was added to their drinking water at 50, 100, or 150 IU/L. Pigs were bled at 0, 3, 7, 10, 14, and 21 d postweaning, with tissues (liver, lung, heart, and loin) collected for {alpha}-tocopherol analysis at d 21. The results indicated that plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations increased (P < 0.01) as vitamin E increased, with greater tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations (P < 0.01) when natural vitamin E was provided. Experiment 3 was conducted in 2 replicates, but pigs (n = 60) were not provided vitamin E in the diet or water for 7 d postweaning, and then natural or synthetic vitamin E was added to the drinking water as in Exp. 2 (50, 100, or 150 IU/L). Pigs were bled at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 24 h after being provided vitamin E to evaluate the absorption from each vitamin E source and level. Plasma {alpha}-tocopherol increased quadratically (P < 0.01) and plateaued at 8 to 10 h for each treatment group. These results indicate that adding vitamin E to the pig’s water supply at weaning was more effective in increasing plasma {alpha}-tocopherol than when it was added to the diet during the initial 14 d postweaning, and that natural vitamin E was a superior source compared with synthetic vitamin E.

Key Words: pig • tocopherol • weaning • vitamin E


   INTRODUCTION
Top
 Abstract
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
After weaning, the plasma and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations in young pigs decline during the initial weeks postweaning, lowering the pig’s vitamin E status and nearing a potential deficient condition (Mahan et al., 1973Go). Because dietary inappetence is common during the initial week postweaning, it is difficult to provide a dietary vitamin E level that would prevent the decline in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol. Supplementing pig starter diets with vitamin E can increase both plasma and tissue concentrations, but there has not been much impact during the initial weeks postweaning (Moreira and Mahan, 2002Go). Water consumption, however, is generally not compromised by weaning and thus may be a better vehicle in providing vitamin E to the weaned pig.

Natural vitamin E differs chemically and physiologically from the synthetic form of the vitamin. Natural vitamin E (RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol) is derived from vegetable oils and is the most biologically active form of the vitamin in animals. Synthetic vitamin E contains a mixture of 8 isomers (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopherol) in equal proportion, but each isomer differs in its biological activity. To prevent the oxidation of the vitamin E molecule, an ester moiety is attached to the active hydroxyl site, protecting the alcohol from oxidation, but the ester is released during the digestion process, which allows absorption of {alpha}-tocopherol (Lauridsen et al., 2001Go).

Synthetic vitamin E has been the more common source added to livestock diets largely because of its lower cost, and NRC (1998)Go requirements are based on research using this product. In recent years, the supply of natural vitamin E has increased, and it has become more economically competitive.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of natural and synthetic vitamin E sources when provided in the diet and drinking water of weanling pigs on their subsequent plasma and tissue responses, and to evaluate the time necessary for the absorption of the 2 vitamin E sources.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
Top
 Abstract
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
The experimental use of animals and procedures followed were approved by the College Animal Care Committee.

The first experiment was a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments in a randomized complete block (RCB) design conducted in 4 replicates. The first factor evaluated the dietary levels of natural vitamin E (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) added at 0, 50, or 300 IU/kg of the diet, whereas the second factor was the natural vitamin E added to the drinking water at 0 or 100 IU/L. A total of 120 pigs, averaging 5.9 kg of BW and weaned at 18 ± 1 d of age, were allotted by BW, ancestry, and sex to treatment groups of 5 pigs per pen. Complex starter diets formulated to contain 1.60 and 1.50% Lys (total) were provided to the pigs on an ad libitum basis from 0 to 7 d and 7 to 21 d postweaning, respectively. Natural vitamin E (NSE 405, ADM, Quincy, IL) was added to diets at the appropriate treatment level at the expense of cornstarch. The diet was formulated to meet or exceed all other nutrient requirements (NRC, 1998Go) except for the dietary variable. Composition of the basal diets is presented in Table 1Go.


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  		Table 1. Composition of the basal diets in Exp. 1 and 2 (%, as-fed basis)
 
Water solutions were prepared daily from a stock solution prepared from a spray-dried natural source of vitamin E (700D, ADM). This stock solution (103 g/L) was prepared in distilled water and stored under refrigeration (4°C) until used. A total of 5 mL of the stock solution was added to 3.785-L containers such that the final solution contained 100 IU/L of drinking water. Each day the vitamin E water solution, as well as an unfortified water supply, was placed in several 3.785-L containers and kept in an adjacent air-conditioned room to keep the water supply as cool as possible. After each 24-h period, new solutions were prepared and the unused portion discarded. Each pen had a 7.57-L water dispenser with a stainless-steel nipple (Kane Enterprises, Des Moines, IA) attached to the pen wall, which allowed the pig free access to the water supply. Water was added to the dispensers a minimum of 3 times/d or as needed. The amount of water remaining in the container after each daily period was recorded to determine water consumption or disappearance.

Pigs were bled via cardiac puncture at 0, 3, 7, 10, 14, and 21 d postweaning. Approximately 5 mL of blood was collected in vacuum tubes (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ; each tube contained 143 USP sodium heparin), placed on ice, and centrifuged (2,200 x g at 5°C for 15 min); plasma was separated and frozen for later analysis. At the end of the experiment, 1 pig was randomly selected from each pen, stunned by electric shock, and killed by exsanguination. Samples of liver, heart, lung, and loin were collected from each pig, placed in plastic bags, frozen, and later analyzed for their {alpha}-tocopherol content.

The second experiment evaluated the effects of various levels of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) or synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E added to the drinking water of weanling pigs for a 21-d period. Because of the different biological activities of the 8 isomers of synthetic vitamin E, the natural source of vitamin E was added at 73.5% (mg basis) of the synthetic source to have IU equivalents for both vitamin E sources.

The experiment was a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments in an RCB design with 4 replicates. The first factor evaluated the source of vitamin E (natural or synthetic), whereas the second factor evaluated the level of vitamin E added to the drinking water (50, 100, or 150 IU/L). The experiment used a total of 96 pigs that averaged 6.2 kg of BW at 18 ± 1 d of age and were allotted on the basis of BW, ancestry, and sex to treatment pens. Pens contained 5 (2 replicates) or 3 (2 replicates) pigs. The diets had the same composition, and each diet was fed for the same duration as in Exp. 1, but the diet was not fortified with vitamin E.

Two stock solutions of vitamin E were prepared, each containing similar amounts of vitamin E/mL when expressed on an IU basis. The natural vitamin E (700D) solution contained 53.4 g/L of distilled water, whereas the synthetic vitamin E (Rovimix E-50 Spray Dried; DSM Nutritional Products Inc., Parsippany, NJ) contained 72.6 g/L of distilled water. Syringes were used to withdraw 5, 10, or 15 mL from each stock solution daily, which was added to the 3.785-L containers, mixed with water, and stored in the adjacent air conditioned room before adding to the water dispensers as in Exp. 1.

Pigs were bled via cardiac puncture at 0, 3, 7, 14, and 21 d, and tissue samples were collected at 21 d postweaning. Blood and tissues samples were collected and processed in the same manner as in Exp. 1, except that 2 pigs from each pen were randomly selected and killed at the end of the 21-d period.

The third experiment was conducted to evaluate the time required for plasma {alpha}-tocopherol to increase after consuming the various levels of vitamin E sources provided in the drinking water. The experimental treatments were the same as Exp. 2, except that it was conducted using 2 replicates of pigs. Both vitamin E sources (natural or synthetic) were added at 3 levels (50, 100, and 150 IU/L) to the drinking water. The experiment used a total of 60 pigs, with 5 pigs allotted to each treatment pen on the basis of BW, ancestry, and sex. Body weight of the weaned pigs averaged 6.1 kg, and pigs were 18 ± 1 d of age. During the initial 7-d postweaning, all pigs had ad libitum access to a common nursery diet that did not contain supplemental vitamin E and did not have vitamin E added to their water supply. This was done so that the plasma concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol would decline after weaning and the subsequent plasma responses would better reflect the effects of the vitamin E treatments provided. At 7 d postweaning the pigs were bled via cardiac puncture, whereupon the treatment water supply was immediately provided to each pen. Appropriate levels of each source were added to the water dispensers in each pen as needed throughout the experimental period. Pigs were bled (2 to 3 mL) via cardiac puncture at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 24 h after adding the vitamin to their drinking water. The collected blood was processed and the plasma was frozen as in Exp. 1 and later analyzed for {alpha}-tocopherol concentration.

Analytical Methods

Plasma and tissue samples were analyzed for their {alpha}-tocopherol content by HPLC, as outlined by Zaspel and Csallany (1983)Go. Preparation of tissue samples for {alpha}-tocopherol involved the use of cast aluminum containers and liquid N to prevent oxidation of {alpha}-tocopherol while preparing the tissues for analysis. Approximately 4 g of tissue was cut from a nonexposed edge of the collected tissue, placed into the aluminum container, and covered with liquid N. Once the sample was frozen, the liquid N was poured off, leaving the frozen tissue. A pestle was inserted into the container, and the frozen tissue was pulverized to a fine powder and analyzed for {alpha}-tocopherol.

The plasma, tissue, and performance responses for each experiment were analyzed as an RCB design (Steel and Torrie, 1980Go) using the GLM procedure (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). In all experiments, the day of bleeding was included as a repeated measure in the model. Dietary and water vitamin E levels were contrasted by linear regression. In each experiment, pen was considered as the experimental unit. Basal diets were sent to a commercial laboratory and analyzed for {alpha}-tocopherol, and averaged 8.3 and 8.2 mg/kg for diets used from d 0 to 7 and d 7 to 21, respectively.


   RESULTS
Top
 Abstract
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 
Exp. 1

There was no effect of adding natural vitamin E to the diet or drinking water on ADG or ADFI for any postweaning period or the overall 21-d period (Table 2Go). There was an improvement (quadratic, P < 0.05) in G:F ratio for the overall 21-d period when vitamin E was added to the diet but not to the drinking water. Water disappearance increased by period, but there was no effect of dietary vitamin E or its addition to the water supply on water disappearance.


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  		Table 2. Effects of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol) vitamin E in the diet (0, 50, or 300 IU/kg) and drinking water (0 or 100 IU/L) on postweaning pig performance (Exp. 1)
 
When the water or diet was not fortified with vitamin E, plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations declined steadily over the 21-d experimental period (Table 3Go). An increase in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration occurred from weaning to 3-d postweaning when vitamin E was added to the water or when the diet was fortified with 300 IU of vitamin E, followed by a decline in all treatment groups from 3 to 10 d postweaning. Plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations were greater and increased in a linear manner (P < 0.01) from 7 to 21 d postweaning as the dietary level of vitamin E increased. Plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration was also greater when vitamin E was added to the drinking water from 3 to 21 d postweaning. The plasma concentrations were, however, always greater when vitamin E was added to the drinking water compared with the diet. When vitamin E was supplied in the drinking water and the diet, there was an increased plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration in an additive manner as the dietary level increased, resulting in an interaction (P < 0.01) at 14 and 21 d post-weaning.


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  		Table 3. Effects of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol) vitamin E in the diet (0, 50, or 300 IU/kg) and drinking water (0 or 100 IU/L) on resulting plasma and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations of weaned pigs (Exp. 1)
 
Tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations at the 21-d post-weaning period presented in Table 3Go indicated that the liver, lung, heart, and loin tissues each contained greater amounts of {alpha}-tocopherol from both vitamin E sources compared with pigs fed the basal diet. Liver tissue contained a greater overall concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol than the other tissues with heart and lung tissues having similar concentrations, whereas the loin tissue contained the lowest concentration. As the dietary level of vitamin E increased or when vitamin E was added to the drinking water, a linear increase (P < 0.01) in {alpha}-tocopherol concentration occurred in each of the tissues. There were interactions between the water and dietary vitamin E levels in the heart (P < 0.01), lung (P < 0.01), and loin (P < 0.01), indicating that when the diet and water supply of vitamin E increased, the {alpha}-tocopherol increase was greater than when either source was provided singly. Although the same response was numerically present in the liver from both the diet and water supply, the response was not statistically significant.

Exp. 2

The results indicated that the 2 different vitamin E sources at their various levels in the drinking water had no effect on ADG, ADFI, or G:F ratios (Table 4Go). Water disappearance increased by period and was not affected by the level or source of vitamin E in the water.


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  		Table 4. Effect of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) or synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E in the water supply of weanling pigs on postweaning performances (Exp. 2)1
 
Plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations increased from weaning to 3 d postweaning but then declined in all treatment groups (Table 5Go). After 3 d postweaning, plasma {alpha}-tocopherol increased linearly (P < 0.01) as the vitamin E level in the drinking water increased.


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  		Table 5. Effect of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) or synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E in the water supply of weanling pigs on plasma and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentration (wet-tissue basis, Exp. 2)
 
Liver had a greater concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol compared with the other tissues, with the heart and lung tissues containing similar and intermediate concentrations, respectively, whereas the loin had the lowest concentration. Although the {alpha}-tocopherol concentration was different, each tissue had an increasingly greater (P < 0.01) concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol as the vitamin E level in the drinking water increased for both vitamin E sources. The concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol was greater in the liver (P < 0.01), heart (P < 0.01), and loin (P < 0.01) when the natural vitamin E source was provided compared with the synthetic vitamin E source.

Exp. 3

The absorption of {alpha}-tocopherol from natural and synthetic vitamin E sources in the drinking water is presented in Table 6Go. Although there were small increases in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration within 2 h after vitamin E was provided in the drinking water, the greatest increase occurred from 6 to 10 h after vitamin E was provided, with a plateau in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol thereafter. This resulted in a quadratic response with time (P < 0.01) in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration for each of the vitamin E sources and levels. Although there was a small numerical trend toward greater plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations as the vitamin E level increased (particularly at 24 h), the responses were not statistically significant for either vitamin E source.


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  		Table 6. Plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration (µg/mL) during the first 24 h after the addition of natural (RRR-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) or synthetic (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) vitamin E to the water supply of pigs, beginning on d 7 after weaning (Exp. 3)1
 

   DISCUSSION
Top
 Abstract
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
LITERATURE CITED
 
The young pig maintains high plasma and tissue concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol while nursing the sow. However, within a few days postweaning, its concentration normally begins to decline quite dramatically (Malm et al., 1976Go; Mahan and Moxon, 1980Go). The high plasma concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol at weaning and the subsequent decline in pigs fed the basal diet in Exp. 1 confirm their reports. Our attempt to provide supplemental vitamin E in the drinking water of the weaned pig indicated that the vitamin supplied in this vehicle was more rapidly absorbed than the vitamin provided in the diet.

Vitamin E is commercially stabilized by an acetate moiety to prevent its oxidation from various dietary and environmental factors. Our results indicate that it takes approximately 8 h to hydrolyze the ester moiety from the vitamin E molecule, resulting in an increase and subsequent plateau of plasma {alpha}-tocopherol thereafter. Our results further indicate that removal of the acetate moiety from the vitamin E molecule was independent of vitamin E source or level provided, and the absorption and subsequent increase in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration occurred at approximately the same time after ingestion from the drinking water. Lauridsen et al. (2001)Go had previously demonstrated that esterase enzymes in the digestive secretions might prevent full utilization of vitamin E in young pigs. Our results would agree with their conclusion, except that there seems to be esterase in the digestive secretions of young weanling pigs that can allow for, at least, some hydrolysis of vitamin E within 6 to 10 h after consumption.

Our data also indicated that providing vitamin E in the drinking water resulted in a more rapid increase in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations than when it was provided in the diet. As the inappetence condition disappears and as weanling pigs get older, feed intake, and thus the vitamin E intake from the diet, subsequently increases. According to our results, both sources were contributing to the greater plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations during the latter part of the nursery period. This was particularly evident at d 14 and 21 postweaning, whereas during the initial weeks postweaning, providing vitamin E in the drinking water seemed to result in a greater increase in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol.

Although it is normally considered that healthy pigs consume approximately 2 to 3 times more water than feed, the consumption of water would be expected to be more consistent than feed intake during the early postweaning period. In 2 treatment groups (Exp. 1), 100 IU/L of vitamin E in the water supply or 300 IU/kg of diet was provided. Our data did in fact indicate similar plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration responses, but only after 14 d postweaning. The data of both Exp. 1 and 2 support a water to feed ratio ≤ 2:1. Providing vitamin E at 100 IU/L in the drinking water resulted in greater plasma concentrations during the initial 14 d postweaning compared with when the diet contained 300 IU/kg. However, by 14 to 21 d postweaning, the responses from the 100 IU/L and the 300 IU/kg of diet treatment groups resulted in similar {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations, indicating that the pig was received approximately equivalent amounts from each supply source. In the young weaning pig, the initial need for vitamin E postweaning is primarily for antioxidant protection and immune function development. It would therefore seem that providing vitamin E in the drinking water initially postweaning would result in a more rapid and improved vehicle for the subsequent absorption of vitamin E compared with providing the vitamin E solely in the diet.

The plasma concentration of {alpha}-tocopherol increased as the water vitamin E supply level increased, but a level of 100 IU/L of water seems to be adequate to obtain a similar {alpha}-tocopherol concentration that can be observed by feeding 300 IU/kg of diet. Although supplementing the water with 50 IU/L would be better than providing vitamin E in the feed, our results indicate that the 100 IU/L would be optimum under most commercial conditions. It is likely that the pig will normally drink water postweaning before eating feed, particularly if it is challenged by health and other environmental issues. Therefore, it may be more beneficial to supplement vitamin E in the drinking water rather than simply providing vitamin E in the feed. By 14 d postweaning, however, with the increasing feed intake of the pig, the diet can be the principal avenue in providing vitamin E. There is an increasing effect from both vitamin E sources in retaining {alpha}-tocopherol in each tissue when vitamin E was provided.

Our results indicate that natural vitamin E resulted in greater tissue {alpha}-tocopherol contents, implying that it is a better source of vitamin E than the synthetic source when expressed on the current system of IU equivalents. The greater effectiveness of natural vitamin E has also been demonstrated in sows (Mahan, 1991Go, 1994Go; Mahan et al., 2000Go; Lauridsen et al., 2002Go) and grower-finisher pigs (Yang et al., 2006Go). The relative bioactivity of natural vitamin E (RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol) has been estimated to be from 1.3 to 2.6 times more effective than the synthetic form (all-rac-{alpha}-tocopherol) in the pig. Although both the natural and synthetic sources provide all or a portion of their vitamin E as RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol, the current equivalence expressed on an IU basis does not seem to result in similar data for the weanling or the grower-finisher pig. Conversion to mg equivalences of RRR-{alpha}-tocopherol, rather than using the IU system, might be less confusing.

The NRC (1998)Go has established the vitamin E requirement at 16 IU/kg of diet for the weaned pig. It is clear from our present and previous research (Moreira and Mahan, 2002Go) that a dietary level of vitamin E > 16 IU/kg of diet is necessary to prevent the postweaning decline in plasma {alpha}-tocopherol concentration. Others have also demonstrated that greater dietary levels than those recommended by the NRC (1998)Go are necessary to enhance the humoral and cellular responses (Ellis and Vories, 1976Go; Nockels, 1979Go; Peplowski et al., 1980Go). Although one of the treatment groups supplied a dietary level approximately 3 times that suggested (i.e., 50 IU/kg of diet in Exp. 1) by NRC (1998)Go, the resulting plasma and tissue concentrations in this treatment group were still below that obtained with providing vitamin E in the water supply. The desired plasma and tissue levels in commercial practice when pigs are subject to less sanitary and health situations are not known, but a plasma or serum concentration of 1.5 to 2.0 µg/mL may be used as a guideline for establishing a satisfactory vitamin E status in the pig.


   Footnotes
 
1 Salaries and research support were provided by state and federal funds appropriated to The Ohio Agriculture Research Development Center, and The Ohio State University. Back

2 Partial support of the projects were provided from ADM Alliance Nutrition Inc., Quincy, IL. Back

3 Appreciation is expressed to K. Mays and L. Warnock for animal care and data collection and P. Krawec for aid in laboratory analysis. Back

5 Present address: Cape Fear Consulting, LLC, Warsaw, NC. Back

4 Corresponding author: mahan.3{at}osu.edu

Received for publication June 22, 2007. Accepted for publication November 30, 2007.


   LITERATURE CITED
Top
 Abstract
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 LITERATURE CITED
 


Ellis, R. P., and X. W. Vories. 1976. Effect of supplemental dietary vitamin E on the serologic response of swine to an Escherichia coli bacterin. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168:231–232.[Medline]

Lauridsen, C., H. Engel, S. K. Jenson, A. M. Craig, and G. Traber. 2002. Lactating sows and suckling piglets preferentially incorporate RRR- over all-rac-{alpha}-tocopherol into milk, plasma, and tissues. J. Nutr. 132:1258–1264.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Lauridsen, C., M. S. Hedemann, and S. K. Jensen. 2001. Hydrolysis of tocopheryl and retinyl esters by porcine carboxyl ester hydrolase is affected by their carboxylate moiety and bile acids. J. Nutr. Biochem. 12:219–224.[CrossRef][Medline]

Mahan, D. C. 1991. Assessment of the influence of dietary vitamin E on sows and offspring in three parities: Reproductive performance, tissue tocopherol, and effects on progeny. J. Anim. Sci. 69:2904–2917.[Abstract]

Mahan, D. C. 1994. Effects of dietary vitamin E on sow reproductive performance over a five parity period. J. Anim. Sci. 72:2870–2879.[Abstract]

Mahan, D. C., J. E. Jones, J. H. Cline, R. F. Cross, H. S. Teague, and A. P. Grifo. 1973. Efficacy of selenium and vitamin E injections in the prevention of white muscle disease in young swine. J. Anim. Sci. 36:1104–1108.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Mahan, D. C., and A. L. Moxon. 1980. Effects of dietary selenium and injectable vitamin E-selenium for weanling swine. Nutr. Rep. Int. 21:829–836.

Mahan, D. C., Y. Y. Kim, and R. L. Stuart. 2000. Effects of vitamin E sources (RRR- or all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate) and levels on sow reproductive performance, serum, tissue, and milk {alpha}-tocopherol contents over a five parity period, and the effects on the progeny. J. Anim. Sci. 78:110–119.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Malm, A., W. G. Pond, E. F. Walker Jr., M. Homan, A. Aydin, and D. Kirkland. 1976. Effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E level of the sow gestation diet on reproductive performance and on level of alpha tocopherol in colostrum, milk and dam and progeny blood serum J. Anim. Sci. 42:393–399.

Moreira, I., and D. C. Mahan. 2002. Effect of dietary levels of vitamin E (all rac-tocopheryl acetate) with or without added fat on weanling pig performance and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentration. J. Anim. Sci. 80:663–669.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Nockels, C. F. 1979. Protective effects of supplemental vitamin E on infections. Fed. Proc. 38:2134.[Medline]

NRC. 1998. Nutrient Requirement of Swine. 10th rev. ed. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC.

Peplowski, M. A., D. C. Mahan, F. A. Murray, A. L. Moxon, A. H. Cantor, and K. E. Ekstrom. 1980. Effect of dietary and injectable vitamin E and selenium in weanling swine antigenically challenged with sheep - red blood cells. J. Anim. Sci. 51:344–351.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics: A Biometrical Approach. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, NY.

Yang, H., D. Mahan, D. Hill, T. Shipp, T. Radke, and M. Cecava. 2006. Determination of bioequivalence ratio of all-rac-{alpha}-tocopheryl acetate based on serum and liver {alpha}-tocopherol content of swine. J. Anim. Sci. 84(Suppl. 2):61. (Abstr.)

Zaspel, B. J., and A. S. Csallany. 1983. Determination of alpha-tocopherol in tissues and plasma by high performance liquid chromatography. Anal. Biochem. 130:146–150.[CrossRef][Medline]


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H. Yang, D. C. Mahan, D. A. Hill, T. E. Shipp, T. R. Radke, and M. J. Cecava
Effect of vitamin E source, natural versus synthetic, and quantity on serum and tissue {alpha}-tocopherol concentrations in finishing swine
J Anim Sci, December 1, 2009; 87(12): 4057 - 4063.
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