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ANIMAL NUTRITION |
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* Department of Animal and Range Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings 57007; and
Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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Key Words: amino acid • corn germ • digestibility • energy • high-protein distillers dried grain • pig
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INTRODUCTION |
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TopAbstractINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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). As a result of the increase in DDGS production, the quantity of DDGS used in swine diets has increased. The Broin Companies (Sioux Falls, SD) have introduced a novel biorefining ethanol technology called BFrac. This new process dehulls and degerms the corn before it enters the fermentation process. The distillers dried grains (DDG) that are produced as a result of this process are not mixed with the solubles, as is the case when DDGS are produced. The solubles are added to the corn hulls and marketed to the ruminant feed industry, and the DDG are dried separately. The DDG contains more protein and less fat, ADF, NDF, and P than DDGS and are called high-protein distillers dried grains (HP DDG). The reason for the changed composition of HP DDG compared with DDGS is that much of the fiber is removed during dehulling, whereas the fat and P largely remain with the germ fraction. In addition, the concentration of fat and P is greater in solubles than in DDG, so DDGS would be expected to contain more fat and P than DDG.
The last coproduct of the BFrac technology is corn germ. This product has a greater concentration of CP, fat, ADF, NDF, and P than corn and is a potential feed ingredient for swine (Table 1). However, no data are available on the digestibility of energy and nutrients in HP DDG and corn germ.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopAbstractINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at South Dakota State University reviewed and approved the experiments. Three experiments were conducted. Pigs used in the experiments were the offspring of SP-1 boars and Line 13 sows (Ausgene Intl. Inc., Gridley, IL).
Exp. 1
Experiment 1 was designed to measure DE and ME and N digestibility of HP DDG and corn germ in growing pigs. Six growing barrows (initial BW, 48.9 ± 1.99 kg) were placed in metabolism cages and allotted to a replicated, 3 x 3 Latin square design, with 3 periods and 3 pigs per square. A feeder and a nipple drinker were installed in each cage.
Three corn-based diets were prepared (Table 2). The first contained 97.6% (as-fed basis) corn. The second diet contained 50.0% corn and 47.7% HP DDG, and the third diet contained 50.0% corn and 47.8% corn germ. Vitamins and minerals were included in all diets to meet or exceed the estimated nutrient requirements for growing pigs (NRC, 1998).
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). The ME was calculated to be 3,338, 3,494, and 3,710 kcal of ME per kg (as-fed basis) in the corn diet, HP DDG diet, and corn germ diet, respectively, based on the NRC (1998) values for ME in corn and the ME values in HP DDG and corn germ from the supplier of these products. The daily allotment of feed was divided into 2 equal meals and was fed at 0800 and 1700. Each pig was fed each of the 3 diets during one experimental period. Water was available at all times.
Pigs were weighed at the beginning of each period and the amount of feed supplied each day was recorded. The pigs were allowed a 5-d adaptation period to their assigned diet. Chromic oxide (0.5%) and ferric oxide (0.5%) were added to the diet in the morning meals on d 6 and 11, respectively. Fecal collections commenced when chromic oxide first appeared in the feces after d 6 and collection ceased when ferric oxide appeared in the feces after d 11 as previously described (Adeola, 2001). Feces were collected twice daily and stored at –20°C until the end of the period. Urine collection was initiated on d 6 at 1700 and ceased on d 11 at 1700. Urine buckets were placed under the metabolism cages, which allowed for total collection. The buckets were emptied in the morning and afternoon and a preservative of 50 mL of 6 N sulfuric acid was added to each bucket when they were emptied. All collected urine samples were weighed and a 20% subsample was collected and stored at –20°C. At the end of the experiment, urine and fecal samples were thawed and mixed within animal and diet, and a subsample was taken for chemical analysis. Fecal samples were dried in a forced-air oven and ground before the subsample was collected.
All samples were analyzed in duplicate. Fecal samples, diets, and feed ingredients were analyzed for DM (procedure 930.15; AOAC, 2005). Fecal samples, urine, diets, and feed ingredients were analyzed for Kjeldahl N (Thiex et al., 2002) and for GE by bomb calorimetry (Parr Instruments, Moline, IL). The energy that was excreted in the feces and in the feces and urine, respectively, were subtracted from the intake of GE to calculate the DE and ME for each diet (Adeola, 2001). The DE and ME in the corn diet was then divided by 0.976 to calculate the DE and ME in corn. By subtracting the contribution of corn to the HP DDG and the corn germ diets from the energy that was measured in each of these diets, the concentrations of DE and ME in HP DDG and corn were calculated by using the difference procedure (Adeola, 2001). By further correcting these values for DM in corn, HP DDG, and corn germ (85.95, 92.43, and 92.24%, respectively), the DE and ME in the ingredient DM were calculated. The digestibility of N for each diet and each feed ingredient was calculated using a similar approach.
Data were analyzed by ANOVA using the PROC MIXED procedure (Littell et al., 1996; SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). Homogeneity of the variance was verified using the UNIVARIATE procedure of SAS. The residual vs. predicted plot procedure was used to check for outliers in the data. An ANOVA was conducted, with diet as the main effect and period as the random effect. Treatment means were separated by using the LSMEANS statement and the PDIFF option of PROC MIXED. Pig was the experimental unit and an alpha level of 0.05 was used to assess significance among means.
Exp. 2
Experiment 2 was designed to measure apparent (ATTD) and true (TTTD) total tract digestibility values for P, ATTD for Ca, and Ca and P balances in pigs fed diets based on HP DDG and corn germ. Thirty growing barrows (initial BW, 33.2 ± 7.18 kg) were placed in metabolism cages in a randomized complete block design with 3 diets and 10 pigs per diet. The metabolism cages were similar to those used in Exp. 1.
Three diets were prepared (Table 3). The first diet contained HP DDG at a concentration of 60% (as-fed basis), whereas the second diet contained corn germ in the amount of 42.5% (as-fed basis). Corn germ and HP DDG were the only P-containing ingredients in these diets. The last diet, a P-free diet, was used to estimate basal endogenous losses of P (Petersen and Stein, 2006). Vitamins and microminerals were included in all diets to meet or exceed estimated nutrient requirements for growing pigs (NRC, 1998). Limestone was included at a concentration of 1.20% in the HP DGG diet, 1.55% in the corn germ diet, and 0.80% in the P-free diet. Soybean oil was added to the HP DDG diet (3.00%) and to the P-free diet (4.00%), but because of the high fat concentration in corn germ, no oil was added to the corn germ diet. Sugar was added at 15.00% in the HP DDG and corn germ diets and 20.00% in the P-free diet to increase palatability. A pork gelatin with a bloom of 100 (Gelita Gelatine US Inc., Sioux City, IA) was added to the corn germ diet and to the P-free diet at 10.00 and 20.00%, respectively, to increase the concentration of AA. Crystalline AA were used as needed to ensure that all diets met current AA requirement estimates (NRC, 1998). Solka floc, a synthetic source of fiber (Fiber Sales and Development Corp., Urbana, OH), was included in the P-free diet (4.00%) to increase the concentration of crude fiber. The ingredients in the P-free diet contained no K and Mg; therefore, these minerals were supplied in the form of potassium carbonate (0.40%) and magnesium oxide (0.10%), respectively.
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Diets were fed for 14 d, with the initial 7 d being an adaptation period, and fecal matter and urine were collected during the following 5 d as described for Exp. 1. All samples were stored, dried, and processed as described for Exp. 1. All samples were analyzed in duplicate. Fecal samples, diets, and feed ingredients were analyzed for DM (procedure 930.15; AOAC, 2005). Concentrations of Ca were determined in fecal matter, urine, diets, and feed ingredients using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (procedure 4.8.03; AOAC, 2000), and P was determined in these samples using a spectrophotometer (procedure 3.4.11; AOAC, 2000). The ATTD, retention, endogenous losses, and TTTD of P were calculated as outlined previously (Petersen and Stein, 2006).
Data were analyzed as explained for Exp. 1, but 2 models were used. In the first model, all means except data for P digestibility, P absorption, and P retention were compared among all 3 diets. In the second model, means for P digestibility, P absorption, and P retention were compared between HP DDG and corn germ.
Exp. 3
Experiment 3 was designed to measure apparent (AID) and standardized (SID) ileal digestibility values for AA in HP DDG and corn germ by growing pigs. Six growing barrows (initial BW, 78.2 ± 11.4 kg) were equipped with a T-cannula in the distal ileum according to procedures adapted from Stein et al. (1998). Pigs were placed in a replicated 3 x 3 Latin square design with 3 periods and 3 pigs per square. Pigs were allowed a 2-wk recovery period following the surgery before the experiment was initiated. During that period, a standard corn- and soybean meal-based grower diet (18% CP) was provided. Pigs were housed individually in 1.2 x 1.8-m pens in an environmentally controlled building (22°C). A feeder and a nipple drinker were installed in each pen.
Three diets were prepared (Tables 4 and 5). The first diet contained HP DDG at a concentration of 50% (as-fed basis), whereas the second diet contained corn germ in the amount of 50% (as-fed basis). Corn germ and HP DDG were the only AA-containing ingredients in these diets. The last diet was an N-free diet used to estimate basal endogenous losses of CP and AA. Soybean oil was included in all diets at 3%. Sugar was included at 35% in the HP DDG and corn germ diets and at 20% in the N-free diet to increase palatability. Chromic oxide (0.4%) was included in all diets as an indigestible marker. Solka floc was included in the N-free diet (3%) to increase the concentration of crude fiber. The feed ingredients that were included in the N-free diet contained no K and Mg; therefore, these minerals were supplied in the form of potassium carbonate and magnesium oxide, respectively. Vitamins and microminerals were included in all diets to meet or exceed estimated nutrient requirements for growing pigs (NRC, 1998).
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Pigs were weighed at the beginning of each period and the amount of feed supplied each day was recorded. Each experimental period lasted 7 d. The initial 5 d of each period were an adaptation period to the diet, whereas the remaining 2 d were used for digesta collections in 9-h periods as described by Stein et al. (1999). Briefly, a 225-mL plastic bag was attached to the cannula barrel by using a cable tie, and digesta that flowed into the bag were collected. Bags were removed whenever they were filled with digesta, or at least once every 30 min. They were then stored at –20°C to prevent bacterial degradation of AA in the digesta.
At the conclusion of the experiment, ileal samples were thawed, mixed within animal and diet, and a sub-sample was taken for chemical analysis. All digesta samples were lyophilized and finely ground before chemical analysis. All samples were analyzed in duplicate. Dry matter was analyzed in samples of digesta, diets, and feed ingredients (procedure 930.15; AOAC, 2005). Amino acids were analyzed in HP DDG, corn germ, all diets, and ileal samples on a Beckman 6300 Amino Acid Analyzer (Beckman Instruments Corp., Palo Alto, CA) using ninhydrin for postcolumn derivatization and norleucine as the internal standard. Before analysis, samples were hydrolyzed with 6 N HCl for 24 h at 110°C (procedure 994.12; AOAC, 2005). Methionine and Cys were determined as methionine sulfone and cysteic acid after cold perfomic acid oxidation before hydrolysis (procedure 994.12, alternative 3; AOAC, 2005). Tryptophan was determined after hydrolysis with NaOH for 22 h at 110°C (procedure 988.15, alternative 1; AOAC, 2005). The Cr concentrations in digesta and diets were determined according to the procedure of Fenton and Fenton (1979).
Values for AID, endogenous losses, and SID for CP and AA in the diets containing HP DDG or corn germ were calculated as described by Stein et al. (2007). These values also represented the digestibility for HP DDG and corn germ, respectively. Data were analyzed as outlined for Exp. 1.
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RESULTS |
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TopAbstractINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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There was no difference in the GE intake among pigs fed the experimental diets (Table 6). The fecal excretion of energy did not differ between pigs fed the corn and the HP DDG diets (533 and 682 kcal, respectively), but pigs fed the corn germ diet (1,109 kcal) had a greater (P < 0.01) fecal excretion of energy. Pigs fed the corn and corn germ diets did not differ in excretion of energy in the urine; however, pigs fed the HP DDG diet had a greater (P < 0.01) excretion of energy than those fed the other diets. Consequently, DE and ME were greater (P < 0.01) in the HP DDG diet compared with the corn or the corn germ diet. The ATTD for GE did not differ between the corn and the HP DDG diets (89.6 and 88.4%, respectively); however, the corn germ diet had a lower (P < 0.01) ATTD for GE (81.2%) than the other 2 diets.
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Pigs fed corn germ had a greater (P < 0.01) fecal excretion of energy (836 kcal) compared with the fecal excretion of energy from pigs fed corn (546 kcal) or HP DDG (409 kcal) when the values for each ingredient were calculated by difference (Table 7). Pigs fed corn and corn germ did not differ in urinary excretion of energy; however, pigs fed HP DDG had a greater (P < 0.05) excretion of energy in the urine than pigs fed the other ingredients (92, 73, and 173 kcal, respectively). The DE and ME did not differ between corn and corn germ, but HP DDG had greater (P < 0.01) values for DE and ME than the other ingredients (4,056, 3,979, and 4,763 kcal DE/kg of DM; 3,972, 3,866, and 4,476 kcal ME/kg of DM for corn, corn germ, and HP DDG, respectively). The ATTD for GE was lower (P < 0.01) in corn germ (74.6%) than in corn (89.6%) and HP DDG (88.2%).
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Phosphorus Digestibility
Feed intake did not differ between pigs fed the HP DDG (825 g) and the P-free (900 g) diets, but intake of the corn germ diet (671 g) was lower (P < 0.05) than for the other diets (Table 8). Pigs fed the HP DDG and corn germ diets did not differ in Ca intake; however, pigs fed the P-free diet had a lower (P < 0.05) intake of Ca than pigs fed the other 2 diets (3.38, 3.37, and 2.58 g, respectively). Phosphorus intake was lower (P < 0.01) for pigs fed the HP DDG diet compared with pigs fed the corn germ diet (2.09 vs. 3.82 g).
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Pigs fed the corn germ diet had a lower (P < 0.01) ATTD of Ca (35.19%) compared with the ATTD of Ca from pigs fed the HP DDG (74.96%) or the P-free diet (75.83%). The ATTD and TTTD of P were greater (P < 0.01) in the HP DDG diet (59.63 and 69.32%, respectively) than in the corn germ diet (28.60 and 33.72%, respectively). The basal endogenous loss of P was estimated from pigs fed the P-free diet at 211 ± 39 mg per kg of DMI.
The absorption of Ca was lower (P < 0.05) in pigs fed the corn germ diet (1.18 g) than in pigs fed the HP DDG (2.55 g) or the P-free (1.99 g) diets. The retention of Ca was greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the HP DDG diet (1.78 g) than for pigs fed the corn germ (0.97 g) or the P-free (0.43 g) diets. When Ca retention was calculated to be a percentage of Ca intake, pigs fed the HP DDG diet had a greater (P < 0.05) retention (52.60%) than pigs fed the corn germ (28.92%) or the P-free (14.15%) diets.
The P absorption and P retention in grams per day did not differ between pigs fed the HP DDG and corn germ diets. When P retention was calculated as a percentage of P intake, pigs fed the HP DDG diet had a greater (P < 0.01) retention (58.91%) than pigs fed the corn germ diet (26.71%).
AA Digestibility
The AID and SID for CP and AA in HP DDG and corn germ are presented in Table 9. The AID for CP was greater (P < 0.05) in HP DDG than in corn germ (72 vs. 33%). The AID for all indispensable AA except Arg were also greater (P < 0.05) for HP DDG than for corn germ. For Lys, AID values of 57 and 47% were obtained for HP DDG and corn germ, respectively, but for Met, Thr, and Trp, values of 86 vs. 61, 70 vs. 34, and 71 vs. 53% were obtained for HP DDG and corn germ, respectively. Likewise, the AID values for all dispensable AA except Pro were greater (P < 0.05) for HP DDG than for corn germ.
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DISCUSSION |
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TopAbstractINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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The GE and CP in corn corresponded with published values (Pedersen et al., 2007). These values were lower than in the HP DDG. When corn goes through fermentation, the starch is converted to ethanol, and after fermentation the remaining nutrients (protein, fat, and fiber) are concentrated 3 times in DDGS compared with corn. When corn is dehulled and degermed before fermentation the resulting HP DDG has a greater GE, CP, ADF, and NDF concentration than corn. The greater fat concentration contributes to the greater DE and ME in HP DDG compared with corn.
When comparing published values for conventional DDGS with values for HP DDG, it appears that HP DDG have a greater energy concentration. Pedersen et al. (2007) reported an average GE of 5,398 kcal/kg of DM in 10 samples of conventional DDGS, which is similar to the GE in HP DDG of 5,399 kcal/kg of DM that was measured in the current experiment. However, the ATTD of GE was 76.8% for conventional DDGS (Pedersen et al., 2007), which is lower than the 88.2% that was measured for HP DDG in the current study. As a consequence, HP DDG has a greater DE and ME (4,763 and 4,476 kcal/kg of DM, respectively) than conventional DDGS (4,140 and 3,897 kcal/kg of DM, respectively). In the production of HP DDG, corn has the hulls removed before fermentation. Therefore, HP DDG contains less ADF and NDF than conventional DDGS, which is likely the reason for the greater energy digestibility in HP DDG than in conventional DDGS.
High-protein DDG and corn germ have similar GE values (5,399 and 5,335 kcal/kg of DM, respectively); however, HP DDG has a greater ATTD of GE than corn germ. Therefore, DE and ME are greater in HP DDG than in corn germ. The reason for the lower ATTD in corn germ may be that corn germ contains more NDF than HP DDG. However, it is also likely that the fibers in HP DDG are more digestible than in corn germ because they have been fermented.
Corn germ has a greater GE concentration than corn because of the greater concentration of fat. However, corn has a greater ATTD for GE than corn germ; therefore, the DE and ME were not greater in corn germ than in corn. The increased concentration of ADF and NDF in corn germ compared with corn is likely the reason for the lower ATTD for GE in corn germ. It was not the objective of this experiment to measure the ATTD for ADF and NDF. However, based on the data for corn germ, it can be speculated that the fiber in corn germ has a reduced digestibility. Otherwise, corn germ containing 18% fat should have had a greater ATTD for GE.
Phosphorus Digestibility
The values for ATTD of P in HP DDG and corn germ that were measured in this experiment are similar to values measured in poultry (Parsons et al., 2006). The concentration of P in HP DDG and corn germ that was measured in this study also concurs with the values reported by Parsons et al. (2006).
Pedersen et al. (2007) reported an average P concentration of 0.61% in 10 samples of conventional DDGS, which is greater than the 0.37% measured in HP DDG. The reason for the lower concentration of P in HP DDG is most likely that the corn used to produce HP DDG was degermed prior to fermentation. However, HP DDG had a similar ATTD of P (59.6%) compared with conventional DDGS (59.1%). Corn germ contains much of the P in corn, which is the reason for the high concentration (1.09%) of P in corn germ. The P is also less digestible in corn germ than in the HP DDG. Bohlke et al. (2005) reported a value of 28.8% for ATTD of P in corn, which is similar to the value of 28.6% observed for corn germ in the present experiment. Thus, corn germ and corn appear to have similar P digestibility, and HP DDG and conventional DDGS also have similar digestibility values for P. When corn goes through the fermentation process, some of the P in the phytate is hydrolyzed. Therefore, more P is available for absorption in the small intestine of the pig, which is likely the reason why the ATTD for P in HP DDG and conventional DDGS are greater than in unfermented corn and corn germ.
The endogenous losses of P were estimated to be 211 ± 39 mg per kg of DMI. This value is greater than the value of 138 mg per kg of DMI reported by Petersen and Stein (2006). However, in a study by Stein et al. (2006a), the endogenous loss of P was reported at 207 mg per kg of DMI, which is in close agreement with the value obtained in this experiment. The values reported by Petersen and Stein (2006) and by Stein et al. (2006a) were measured using a P-free diet, as was used in this study. Values reported for endogenous losses that were measured using the regression technique have been between 70 mg per kg of DMI (Pettey et al., 2006) and 670 mg per kg of DMI (Shen et al., 2002). Thus, the value for endogenous losses of P obtained in this experiment is within the wide range of previously published values.
Most of the Ca in all diets originated from limestone. However, the ATTD for Ca was much lower for pigs fed corn germ than for pigs fed HP DDG or the P-free diet. The reason for this observation may be that corn germ contained much more phytate than HP DDG. The Ca in the corn germ diet may have been bound to the phytate complex during passage through the intestinal tract of the pig, which in turn reduced the ATTD for Ca in pigs fed this diet. Thus, it seems that the presence of phytate in the diet greatly influences the digestibility of Ca. In contrast, the high ATTD for Ca in the P-free diet indicates that the digestibility of Ca is not influenced by the presence of P in the diet. This observation is in agreement with recent data from Stein et al. (2006a). The high urinary excretion and low retention of Ca in pigs fed the P-free diet is also in agreement with data presented by Stein et al. (2006a). This observation indicates that if there is no P available in the body, then Ca will not be retained because both P and Ca are needed for the synthesis of bone tissue. The absorption of Ca is not influenced by the presence of P in the body, but the absorbed Ca is retained only if there is sufficient P available for bone tissue synthesis.
AA Digestibility
The AID and SID for most AA and CP in HP DDG that were measured in this experiment are greater than the average values reported for conventional DDGS (Stein et al., 2006b). The reason for this observation is most likely that no solubles are added to the HP DDG, as is the case for DDGS. It has been shown that in conventional DDGS, greater AID and SID for AA are obtained if the solubles are not added to the DDG (A. A. Pahm, Univ. Illinois, personal communication). Nevertheless, the values obtained for HP DDG in the present experiment are within the range of values obtained for conventional DDGS (Stein et al., 2006b).
Of all the indispensable AA, the lowest values for AID and SID in HP DDG were obtained for Lys. The reason for this observation may be that the heat applied to the product during dehydration may have damaged some of the Lys. Heat damage has been shown to reduce both the concentration and the digestibility of Lys.
The relatively low values for AID and SID that were measured for corn germ indicate that the protein in the germ fraction is of poor quality. Another possible reason for the low AID and SID in corn germ is the greater concentration of ADF and NDF. It has been demonstrated that greater concentrations of fiber negatively influence AA digestibility (Mosenthin et al., 1994; Lenis et al., 1996).
In conclusion, HP DDG have a greater digestibility of energy and most AA than previously reported for conventional DDGS and corn. The digestibility of P in HP DDG is similar to values previously reported for conventional DDGS, but is greater than in corn. Therefore, HP DDG is expected to have a greater feeding value than conventional DDGS or corn when fed to pigs. Corn germ has a lower energy and AA digestibility than corn or conventional DDGS. However, the DE and ME in corn germ are similar to the DE and ME in corn.
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Footnotes |
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2 Corresponding author: hstein{at}uiuc.edu
Received for publication December 26, 2006. Accepted for publication July 10, 2007.
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LITERATURE CITED |
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TopAbstractINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONLITERATURE CITED |
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