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Department of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge 70803-4210
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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-tocopherol increased the oxidative stability of goat meat patties, whereas the addition of oat trim or oat bran decreased fat and shear force. Smoked and fermented goat meat sausages were acceptable to consumers, but they are more expensive per unit weight than sausages from other species. Emulsification capacity of goat meat proteins is high, and the palatability of frankfurters was increased with the use of mechanically separated goat mince. Goat meat was distinguishable from other species in plain and seasoned meat loaves, chili, curries, and patties. Specific organic acids are associated with goat meat flavor, and oxidized flavors develop more rapidly in cooked goat meat than in meat from other species. More convenient product forms and the availability of goat meat would increase the value and penetration of goat meat in ethnic and nontraditional consumer markets.
Key Words: Consumer Evaluation • Goat • Palatability • Processing • Value-Added • Products
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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). The number of goats has increased globally, even in countries with high and intermediate incomes (Morand-Fehr et al., 2004), despite major changes in agriculture due to industrial mergers, globalization, and technological advances in developed countries (Boehlje and Sonka, 1998; Cheeke, 2004). Competitive advantages sustain production and marketing within the constraints of financial and strategic risks. Value chains that lower costs, manage risk, and respond to consumer demands are developing (Boehlje et al., 1999). Consumer food trends include convenience requirements, more meat, innovative dairy products, and growth in ethnic foods and one-dish meals, which include sandwiches, bowls, or cups as the entrée (Sloan, 2003). Convenience may mean less time for shopping, speed or ease of preparation, speed or ease of consumption, ready-to-eat or no preparation, or portability. Consumers often are willing to pay higher prices for convenient versions of their favorite products (IRI, 2002). Value-added products are a means to provide convenience and economic profitability.
Value-added products have been changed in form, function, or grouping to increase their economic value and/or consumption appeal (USDA, 2004). Value may be added to final products by decreasing costs or improving relative value (price received) of the final product. Costs may be decreased by using fewer market channel steps, lowering production or distribution costs, and by using uniform or consistent groups for inventory and display control. Relative value or price received is increased through products that are more palatable, usable, or available in a different form or time after sorting or processing. The relative value, and thus the amount of value that has been added or is available to the producer of the commodity or product, is ultimately determined through amounts and prices of purchases by consumers.
The differences in attitudes and behaviors of various ethnic groups are important to businesses in terms of the goods and services that are offered (Gardyn and Fetto, 2003). Ethnic groups may be defined as having a common and distinctive racial, national, religious, linguistic, or cultural heritage. The distribution of racial and ethnic diversity in the United States is uneven because of diverging migration patterns of immigrants and domestic groups (Frey, 2004). Some states, such as Texas and Florida, have attracted both immigrants and domestic migrants (Frey, 2002). A challenge to businesses will be the development of products that appeal to many demographic segments, because the Asian and Hispanic populations will almost double in the next 25 yr (Wellner, 2003). The demand for goat meat in the United States has been centered in areas with ethnic populations that use goat meat as a traditional staple (Hansen, 2003), with consumers from many different ethnic groups, including Muslim, Latino, Asian, Afro-American, Haitian, and Eastern European, eating goat meat (Pinkerton, 2002). Some ethnic markets in Florida use a higher proportion of imported frozen goat meat than other geographical areas, with price being the primary determinant of demand and consumption (Nuti et al., 2003b). Increased urban demographic growth has increased the demand for goat meat even though low innovation has contributed to the difficulty in preparing and cooking goat meat by urban peoples (Dubeuf et al., 2004). Opportunities exist for goat meat because of its ecological image, dietetic and health qualities, and association with religious holidays, along with the tendency of consumers toward natural foods (Dubeuf et al., 2004). Trends toward healthier diets could increase the demand for value-added products from nontraditional meat sources, such as goat meat, to supply products with decreased fat, lower cholesterol, and less sodium (Dawkins et al., 1999). The potential for ethnic, value-added, and convenient items is very high (Sloan, 2005), presenting justification for adding value to goat meat and goat meat products to stimulate growth and profit-ability of meat goat production.
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Influences of Production Practices on Addition of Value to Goat Products |
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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; Pinkerton and McMillin, 2005). The highest price spikes also coincide with religious and ethnic holiday dates (Pinkerton, 2002), whereas the lowest prices are in the summer when demand is least and supply is greatest (Farris, 2003). Seasonal breeding and forage conditions of domestic goat production make it difficult to adjust birth, weaning, and growth cycles to match periods of high consumer demand (Nuti et al., 2000b). Size uniformity requirements are reflected in the live goat markets, with kid goats weighing 18 to 36 kg bringing higher relative prices per unit of weight than those weighing more than 36 kg (Farris, 2004). Goats weighing 36 kg or over may be discounted in live animal markets because of the undesirable size and product traits of the resulting goat meat cuts. Increasing the live slaughter weight from 16 to 28 kg increased dressing percent and carcass fat thickness with corresponding increases in shear force values and lower overall sensory acceptability scores (Dhanda et al., 2003a). Those data only partially agreed with an earlier report that increased age and weight at slaughter increased carcass dressing percents and proportions of lean to fat and bone (Ruvuna et al., 1992). Slaughter at 25 kg decreased water binding and hue and increased a* value (redness), chroma, shear force, and fiber type areas in goat meat compared with slaughter at 6 kg. In the same study, fat, collagen solubility, and Type I fiber percent were not changed with slaughter weight (Argüello et al., 2000). Additionally, if increased live weights at marketing were achieved with minimal input costs, then the profit margin of producers potentially could increase through increased weight gains and total income per unit of input. Production costs are another factor influencing the relative value of goats. Harvesting of feral goats in Australia results in frozen goat meat delivery into the United States at a lower cost per unit of weight than for goat meat from domestic sources in the same geographic area (Nuti et al., 2003b).
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; Gaili et al., 1972; Riley et al., 1989), but conformation and breed may influence the effects of age on meat properties (Smith et al., 1978). The leg slices in meat from yearling goats and kid goats with low conformation were less tender than leg meat from kid goats having medium or high conformation (Phelps et al., 1999). Loin chops and leg roasts from young Angora goats were more tender than from year-ling Angora goats, but meat from 6-mo-old Spanish goats was more tender than from 4-mo-old or yearling Spanish goats (Smith et al., 1978). The LM from dairy goats 6 to 12 mo of age was more tender than those from dairy goats 24 to 30 mo old (Kannan et al., 2003).
Organoleptic properties of tenderness, appearance, aroma, flavor, juiciness, and overall palatability were decreased with goat age from 175 to 310 d. Meat from goats slaughtered at 175 d of age had a lower number of volatile compounds and intensity as measured by total relative abundance, and was preferred by semi-trained sensory panelists over meat from older animals (Madruga et al., 2000). Smith et al. (1978) had previously reported that flavor was more intense in leg roasts from young vs. yearling Angora goats, but age did not influence the flavor of leg and sirloin chops from Spanish goats or the flavor of loin chops from Angora and Spanish goats. Increased age of goat also was reported to increase drip loss, with the meat from older animals with seven to eight permanent incisors being judged to have lower initial and sustained juiciness than goat meat from younger animals with no permanent incisors (Schönfeldt et al., 1993b). Fatty acids in meat from goats raised on forage changed with goat age. Octadecanoic acid, oleic acid, and cholesterol increased, whereas linolenic acid decreased in the lean composite mixtures from carcasses of goats with increased slaughter age from 4 to 6 mo to 8 to 10 mo (Beserra et al., 2004). However, Dhanda et al. (2003b) reported that oleic and linoleic acids increased in intermuscular adipose tissue of male goats at 254 d of age compared with younger counterparts at 93 d of age.
Sex class also influences carcass composition and meat properties of goats, with fat tissue being the most affected (Mahgoub et al., 2004). Intact males were reported to have higher lean-to-fat-to-bone percents (75:10:15) than castrated males (68:18:14; Ruvuna et al., 1992). These data substantiated the findings of Bayraktaroglu et al. (1988) that castrated males had more mesenteric, kidney, and channel fat and lower weights of carcass cuts than intact males. Carcasses from intact males had higher contents of muscle and lower contents of fat than carcasses from females (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992), whereas carcasses of castrated male kid goats had higher percentages of lean and lower amounts of carcass and omental fat than carcasses from female kid goats (Hogg et al., 1992). Those findings were contradicted by Wilson (1960), who reported that female East African dwarf kid goats had higher fat and less bone in the body than male goats, with greater differences with increased age. Johnson et al. (1995b) also reported that carcasses of female kid goats had less bone, more fat, and higher percentages of fat-free lean percents than did those of intact males, which had less bone, less fat, and higher amounts of fat-free lean than carcasses of castrated males. There were no differences in moisture, fat, or protein contents of uncooked composite goat samples from intact male, female, or castrated kid goats of 21 to 28 kg slaughter weight (Johnson et al., 1995b). Mahgoub et al. (2004, 2005) reported that weight at slaughter influenced composition, with wethers having more total carcass and total body fat than intact males or females at an 11-kg slaughter weight, whereas female does had more total body and carcass fat than wethers, which had more fat than intact males, at 18- and 28-kg slaughter weights. Goats with a lighter carcass weight of 16 kg were used in the Hogg et al. (1992) study, whereas a range of carcass weights from 2 to 52 kg on 37 male and female Saanen goats was reported in the Colomer-Rocher et al. (1992) study, which may explain some of the differences in results. At 47 d of age, weight at slaughter was lower for female kid goats than for male goats, but dressing percents and tissue composition were not different. Twins had higher gains than singles to achieve the same slaughter weight, dressing percents, and tissue composition as single goats (Todaro et al., 2004).
The shear force values of longissimus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus muscles from female carcasses were lower than those from castrated male carcasses, which had lower shear force values than those muscles from intact male carcasses (Johnson et al., 1995b). Madruga et al. (2000) reported no differences in sensory attributes of meat from intact and castrated goats at differing slaughter ages. Composite broiled leg slices from intact males had higher unsaturated fatty acid content than did broiled slices from female or castrated goats (Johnson et al., 1995a). However, Santos-Filho et al. (2005) reported no differences in unsaturated fatty acid composition in meat from intact or castrated male goats at 20 kg BW, whereas cholesterol and total saturated fatty acids were increased in meat from castrated males.
Breed
Goat breed will often influence carcass composition and characteristics, with resulting differences in carcass and meat value, even though three breeds of goats from India were reported to have the same HCW and muscling (Nagpal et al., 1995). Dressing percents (yield of carcass) were higher in young intact males of Spanish vs. Angora breeding, but tenderness was similar in meat from goats of the two breeds at the same age (Riley et al., 1989). Boer x Spanish goats had carcasses with higher conformation scores and larger leg circumference than carcasses from Spanish goats, but lean, bone, and fat were similar in the carcass and wholesale cuts within diet group (Table 1; Oman et al., 1999). The juiciness of goat meat was reported to be the same in loin chops and leg roasts from Angora and Spanish goats of the same age (Smith et al., 1978). This finding was contradicted by Schönfeldt et al. (1993a, b), who reported that meat from Angora goats was more tender and juicy and had lower shear resistance and lower collagen content than meat from Boer goats. Higher cooking losses and higher unsaturated fatty acids were reported in meat patties from Spanish than Angora goats (Rhee et al., 1997). There was no influence of breed (Boer x Spanish, Spanish, Spanish x Angora, Angora) on retail shelf life (color, appearance, odor) of goat meat in air-permeable packaging (Oman et al., 2000).
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). Anglo-Nubian kid goats had heavier carcasses with more muscle and less fat while Boer x Saanen kid goats had carcasses with more fat than carcasses of Saanen kid goats (Gibb et al., 1993). The tenderness of back and leg muscles did not differ among goats of Florida native origin or crosses of Florida native with Spanish or Nubian goats (Johnson et al., 1995b). Meat from Cashmere goats was more tender than meat from other breeds, whereas shear force and sensory juiciness were the same in meat from Boer, Cashmere, and Boer x Cashmere goats (Swan et al., 1998).
The dressing percent, muscling, shear force, and sensory determinations of tenderness, flavor, juiciness, and overall acceptability were not different in goats of five different genotypes (Boer x Angora, Boer x Saanen, feral x feral, Saanen x Angora, Saanen x feral) at the same live weight (Dhanda et al., 1999a,b). In other studies, however, dressing percent, fat thickness at the 12th-/13th-rib and rump areas, cooking loss, shear force values, and sensory scores for tenderness, juiciness, and overall acceptability were different among male goats of these genotypes (Dhanda et al., 2003a). Although there were no differences in percentages of the primal cuts with genotype, percentages of muscle in the shoulder and leg were higher and the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids was lower in intermuscular adipose tissue from goats with feral genotypes (Dhanda et al., 2003b). Johnson (2000) found that 14-to 20-kg capretto carcasses from Boer x Cashmere and Cashmere male kid goats had more s.c. and intermuscular fat than did carcasses from Boer x feral male kid goats. These results were generally reinforced by the findings of Husain et al. (2000) that in 11 genotypes, goats with some feral breeding had higher percentages of muscle and lower percentages of fat in carcasses than goats from established breed genotypes. Imported goat carcasses from Australia, presumably from feral goats, had superior conformation with the same amount of external fat, higher percentages of total primal cuts, and lower percentages of total boneless meat than did carcasses from domestic U.S. goats raised on pasture (Table 2; Nuti et al., 2003c).
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). Beserra et al. (2004) found no differences in fatty acid composition in meat from crosses of five breeds. Kadim et al. (2004) reported lower shear force in meat from Batina goats than in goats of Dhofari and Jabal Akdhar breeds, which differed from a previous report that goats of these breeds did not have differences in tenderness of the longissimus, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, or semimembranosus muscles (Kadim et al., 2003).
Diet and Stress
Goats on a high plane of nutrition had heavier BW with higher levels of body fat than did goats with lower planes of nutrition (Wilson, 1960). Increased concentrate-to-forage ratios increased weight gain, final BW, and G:F of male kid goats, while decreasing feed costs (Haddad, 2005). Feedlot finishing of Boer x Spanish and Spanish goats with 80% concentrate diets ad libitum resulted in increased carcass fat thickness, higher dressing percents, and increased fat percent in primal cuts compared with goats raised on rangeland with no supplemental feeding (Table 1
; Oman et al., 1999). The income over cost increased for Boer-cross goats and decreased for Spanish kid goats finished to slaughter weight on 0.23 and 0.46 kg of corn•goat–1•d–1 compared with pasture-finishing with no supplemental corn (Nuti et al., 2000a). However, increased fatness resulted in lower yields of edible product (Nuti et al., 2003a), and retailers and their ethnic customers prefer goat meat with no fat (Karanjkar et al., 2000). Increased carcass fatness increased subsequent drip, evaporation, and cooking losses in meat from Angora and Boer goats (Schönfeldt et al., 1993b), but the shear force, collagen solubility, and cooking losses of LM were not different with combinations of low and high energy and low and high protein levels in diets for dairy goats (Gadiyaram et al., 2003).
Intensive management with high energy intake by goats increased the juiciness, tenderness, and texture of the chevon, but general acceptability was lower than with grazing systems because the meat had higher fat (Karanjkar et al., 2000). This reinforced the report of Intarapichet et al. (1994) that the acceptability of goat meat was decreased with higher concentrate feeding because the flavor intensity was increased. Carlucci et al. (1998) found that meat from goats grazed and fed a commercial pellet was more tender and juicy, whereas meat from goats fed hay and a commercial pellet was stringier, with more meaty odor and flavor. Unsaturated fatty acids and lipid oxidation were higher, but PUFA were the same in meat from concentrate-fed Spanish and Spanish x Boer goats compared with meat from goats that were range-fed (Rhee et al., 1997).
Male kid goats suckled on the dam had slightly more tender and juicy meat with a lower chroma value than meat from kid goats given milk replacer (Argüello et al., 2005). Undernutrition of young intact males did not influence dressing percents, but slaughter, carcass, and prime cut weights were less than with supplemented control goats (Almeida et al., 2000). Atti et al. (2004) determined the optimal level of CP in concentrate diets for growing goats to be 130 g/kg of DM, with no growth improvement in BW or lean deposition with higher levels of CP. A cobalt deficiency increased shear force and decreased muscle color in meat from male goats of Batina, Dhofari, and Jabal Akdhar breeds. Batina goats receiving hydroxocobalamin injections had muscles with lower shear force values, L* (darker color), expressed juice, and ultimate pH, and higher a* color (redder) than control goats (Kadim et al., 2004). Cooked meat from kid goats fed destoned olive pomace at 20% of the diet had the same proximate composition, color, and texture as meat from kid goats fed a concentrate pelleted control diet (Colonna et al., 2004). Supplementation with Tasco seaweed extract increased color stability of loin and rib chops during display in aerobic packaging, although there was no influence on lipid oxidation (Galipalli et al., 2004). Biogenic amines administered orally or in feed caused weight losses, whereas weaned control goats gained weight. Meat from treated goats had lower drip losses and redder meat compared with meat from control goats (Fusi et al., 2004). Feeding of cashew nut bran containing high amounts of oil and oleic acid did not alter the fatty acid composition of meat from intact and castrated male goats compared with control diets (Santos-Filho et al., 2005).
Stress also may influence meat properties and the value of specific products. Two-hour transportation stress preslaughter did not alter water-holding capacity or shear force, but it decreased redness and chroma values in meat from young goats (Kannan et al., 2003). Older goats (24 to 30 mo of age) were more resistant to transportation stress than younger goats (6 to 12 mo of age), with no effect on a* and chroma values of loin cuts from the older goats. Cooking losses and shear force value in loin chops aged for 7 d were not affected by 2-h transportation stress (Kannan et al., 2003).
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Meat Processing |
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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) to ethnic consumers (Degner and Locascio, 1988; Pinkerton, 2002). Value is added to raw chilled meat by changing the form or utility. The Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications (IMPS) for Fresh Goat describe standard cutting practices for merchandising of uniform goat meat cuts (Olson et al., 1999; Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000; USDA, 2001). Meat properties and preservation are changed by many single or combination unit-processing operations. Primary processing operations include tenderization, grinding, flaking, freezing, and case-ready fabrication and packaging, whereas examples of further processing are curing, smoking, marinating, injection, emulsifying, forming, and cooking (Pearson and Gillett, 1996). Value-added product areas also would include irradiated products for microbial safety, precooked products for convenience, portioned and institutional items for uniformity, and nutritionally enhanced meat for healthfulness.
Meat Tenderization
Tenderization of raw chilled meat can be accomplished through enzymatic, electrical, and mechanical means (Romans et al., 2001). Postmortem endogenous proteolysis usually is associated with meat tenderization. Endogenous enzymatic activity decreased through 20 d of 5°C postmortem storage. Calpain-I and calpastatin activity decreased more than for calpain-II. Cathepsin B, B+L, H, and cystatin also fell by 9 to 35% after 20 d, whereas cathepsin D decreased 11 to 17% (Nagaraj et al., 2002). Maximal tenderization has been observed in the first 4 d postmortem, with decreased shear force at 8 d accompanied by increased myofibrillar index with storage time even though i.m. connective tissue was not changed (Kannan et al., 2002). Warner-Bratzler shear values were less with 6-d aging than 1-d aging of longissimus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus muscles (Kadim et al., 2003). Aging for 3 d did not improve tenderness, whereas aging for 14 d decreased shear force of gluteobiceps muscles from 11-kg goat carcasses (King et al., 2004). Simela et al. (2004) indicated that the tenderness and color properties of chevon were highly dependent on postmortem pH and temperature attained by the carcasses, with slow chilling and fast pH decline improving the tenderness and color. The postmortem pH decline in the King et al. (2004) study seemed to agree with this pH and temperature relationship; the pH and temperature measurements during chilling were not described in the Kadim et al. (2003) and Kannan et al. (2002) studies.
Electrical stimulation has been shown to accelerate postmortem pH decline, hasten rigor development, and improve specific palatability characteristics (Seideman and Cross, 1982). The decreased shear force and increased sensory tenderness with 100-V, 5-ampere low-voltage electrical stimulation of goat carcass sides for 100 s was more in the longissimus than in semimembranosus and biceps femoris leg muscles. Overall palatability was higher, whereas sarcomere lengths, flavor ratings, and juiciness evaluations were not different with electrical stimulation (Savell et al., 1977). The increased tenderness of chops from goat carcasses electrically stimulated with 100 V and 5 amperes for 50 s was retained through a 7-d aging period compared with chops from control carcasses. Application of low-voltage electrical stimulation at different times during slaughter (after exsanguination, after pelt removal, after evisceration, after splitting) was equally effective in causing tenderization. High-temperature aging of carcasses, however, was less effective in tenderizing the longissimus, semimembranosus, and biceps femoris muscles than electrical stimulation (McKeith et al., 1979). Electrical stimulation had no effect on myofibril fragmentation or sarcomere length, but it increased tenderness at 1 and 3 d postmortem in cabrito carcasses (King et al., 2004).
Mechanical blade tenderization decreased sensory connective tissue and decreased shear force in wholesale legs and loins, whereas cooking losses, cooking times, flavor, juiciness, and overall satisfaction were not changed from control cuts. Less tender cuts benefited more from mechanical tenderization than more tender cuts, but increases in the number of passes through the mechanical tenderizer only slightly improved sensory tenderness ratings (Bowling et al., 1976).
Ground Goat Meat
Ground meat products are popular minimally processed products, with ground beef accounting for 45 to 50% of retail beef sales in the United States (NCBA, 2001). Ground meat can be made by comminuting through a grinder knife and plate or through bowl cutting to achieve the desired size reduction (Aberle et al., 2001). James and Berry (1997) reported that the shear force was lower in comminuted goat patties made with grinding than with bowl cutter chopping. Ingredients may improve the properties or functionality of comminuted meat. Blending of 10 ppm -tocopherol acetate into ground goat meat increased the water binding, odor scores, color stability, lipid stability, and shelf-life during 9 d storage at 4°C. A strong relationship between lipid and pigment oxidation was observed, with 10 ppm -tocopherol acetate in ground goat meat extending shelf-life up to 7 d compared with 3-d shelf life in control samples (Verma and Sahoo, 2000). The addition of 15 to 50% oat bran to ground goat meat was shown to decrease moisture, fat, protein, Na, Zn, cholesterol, cooking loss, and shear force and to increase unsaturated fatty acids, soluble fiber, and insoluble fiber in patties. There were minimal composition and texture changes with 15 or 20% oat bran compared with control patties (Dawkins et al., 1999). Oat trim and oat gum were added to ground chevon at 0.5, 1, and 2% to provide meat products with added fiber and textural enhancement. Fat level and shear force were decreased, whereas tenderness and juiciness were increased with addition of the oat products (Dawkins et al., 2001).
Packaging and Storage
Oman et al. (2000) reported that the lean color score and overall appearance decreased as surface discoloration increased during 4-d storage of goat rib chops in retail overwrap packaging at 2°C, but there were no breed influences on those traits. Kannan et al. (2001) also found that although shoulder cuts were reddest, with the highest chroma and lowest hue, surface discoloration of all packaged cuts occurred within 4 to 8 d, so the case-life of goat meat was similar to other red meat species. Leg, shoulder/arm, and loin/rib cuts packaged in vacuum were slightly more tender than those in air-permeable film, with lower shear force in longissimus than in semimembranosus and triceps brachii (Kannan et al., 2001). The use of organic acid (2% lactic, 1.5% acetic, 1.5% propionic) sprays of inoculated goat carcasses increased refrigerated shelf-life by 5 d with marginal changes in color and odor scores. Total viable microbial counts of treated meat samples were decreased by 0.5 to 1.2 log units (Dubal et al., 2004).
Oxygen-permeable packaging during 4°C storage increased the lipid oxidation of raw goat meat patties, but –20°C storage decreased the amount of lipid instability (Rhee et al., 1997). Vacuum packaging lengthened the shelf-life (28 d) compared with aerobic packaging (3 d) of minced goat meat, with lower aerobic microbial counts and higher semi-trained sensory panel acceptability also reported with vacuum packaged meat. Putrid odors in aerobically packed mince and sulfide odors in vacuum packs were observed during 4°C storage (Babji et al., 2000). Those results were reinforced by reports that vacuum packaging preserved the sensory quality of chevon patties more than aerobic packaging during 4°C storage, but the shelf-life in vacuum was not extended beyond 15 d in the study of Rajkumar et al. (2004). Lipid oxidation, shear force, and water activity did not vary with packaging type during 25 d of storage (Rajkumar et al., 2004).
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Further Processed Products |
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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). Refrigerated cooked chevon developed lipid oxidation, measured as hexanal, more rapidly than had been reported for other cooked meats, possibly due to the low fat content of goat meat (Lamikanra and Dupuy, 1990). The cooking yield and shear of goat leg chops were not different between broiling and microwaving, but broiled chevon chops were darker and lower in fat. The cooking yield and total work to shear patties cooked to an internal temperature of 75°C were higher with pan-frying than with broiling, which was higher than with baking (James and Berry, 1997). Cooking losses were highest in leg cuts, intermediate in shoulder/arm cuts, and lowest in loin/rib cuts (Kannan et al., 2001). McMillin and Brock (2004) described the linear dimensions, weight, color, and shear force for 11 of the major muscles in kid goat carcasses to provide baseline information for use of individual muscles in processing.
Freezing of broiled goat meat patties in polyethylene bags, thawing, and reheating did not greatly decrease sensory scores. However, meat deboned at 3 to 4 h postmortem gave lower yields of broiled patties than did chilled meat (Padda et al., 1988). The lipid oxidation of cooked goat meat patties increased greatly during storage in air-permeable packaging at 4°C, but it increased only slightly in cooked patties stored at –20°C (Rhee et al., 1997). After frozen and thawed ground goat meat was cooked and then aerobically refrigerated for 0, 3, or 6 d at 4°C, lipid oxidation was higher in unseasoned cooked meat loaves than in seasoned chili. The brothy flavor intensity decreased and the cardboard flavor intensity increased as judged by trained sensory panelists, who evaluated unseasoned cooked goat loaves stored in oxygen-permeable packaging at each refrigerated storage interval (Rhee and Myers, 2003).
Sausages
Sausage products may be categorized by texture, ingredients, curing, smoking, casing type, size, and appearance (Pearson et al., 1996; Aberle et al., 2001). Uncured, seasoned linked sausages with 25 or 50% goat meat (remainder pork) had visual color, juiciness, and off flavor similar to that of 100% pork sausages, whereas the 100% goat sausages had higher color and off flavor scores. Sodium acid pyrophosphate decreased cooking losses and improved visual color in treated sausages compared with controls during the initial days of retail display (Reddy et al., 1987). Chevon sausage had lower fat, slightly lower cohesiveness, and the same gumminess and chewiness as beef and pork sausages, indicating that chevon could be used in manufacturing low-fat sausages without a major influence on textural attributes (Gadiyaram and Kannan, 2004). Cabrito smoked sausage containing 4% soybean oil and 0, 1.75, or 3% soy protein concentrate did not have flavor differences as judged by a trained sensory panel. Smoked sausage with 0 and 3.5% soy protein concentrate were similar in flavor, texture, and overall acceptance in a consumer sensory panel, but the cost of $13.50/kg was more than double the cost of comparable smoked pork sausage (Cosenza et al., 2003). Fermentation and drying are processing methods to preserve meat products. Fermented goat meat sausage (25% fat) with 0.5% rosemary as a natural antioxidant had increased lipid stability and higher untrained sensory panel acceptability compared with control fermented goat meat sausage during 70 d of storage in vacuum packages at 30°C (Nassu et al., 2003).
Sausages such as frankfurters and bologna require extraction and solubilization of myofibrillar proteins to form a stable matrix with emulsified fat and water (Acton et al., 1983). Goat water-soluble and actomyosin proteins had higher emulsifying capacity than sheep, chicken, and pork proteins. Melted sheep and goat fat formed unstable emulsions due to poor dispersion of the excessive quantities of saturated fatty acids, but sheep and goat meat sausages may be used in place of pork and bovine meats (Chattoraj et al., 1979). Using the hind leg muscles of several species, goat and sheep proteins were found to be more extractable, with higher emulsifying capacities than proteins from the rounds of cattle and water buffalo. It was concluded that goat and water buffalo had some advantages over cattle meat for making an emulsion, but that goat meat should be mixed with water buffalo in manufactured products for the most stable products (Turgut, 1984). Emulsified goat sausages with 35% pork backfat or 25% shortening had the highest consumer acceptability. Higher fat levels in goat emulsion sausages gave lighter color, less firm texture, lower elasticity and springiness, and less intense smoky and seasoning flavor. There were no differences in "goaty" and "porky" flavors or overall desirability (Intarapichet et al., 1995).
Mechanically separated meat recovered with mechanical deboning equipment has a fine texture suitable for emulsified sausages (Froning et al., 1971). Frankfurters made with mechanically deboned goat recovered from carcasses of old or young goats by auger-sieve separation had composition and processing characteristics similar to control beef and pork frankfurters. Consumer panelists preferred or did not dislike the frankfurters containing mechanically deboned goat or mutton when compared with control frankfurters with manually deboned beef and pork (Marshall et al., 1977). The mince recovered from intact shoulders, carcass frames after shoulder removal, and halves of goat carcasses was not different in composition, color, and lipid stability. The 5-mm openings in a belt-drum mechanical separator gave a coarser mince texture than 2-mm openings (McMillin et al., 1999).
Goat Meat Product Acceptability
Goat meat traditionally has been consumed by consumers from identified ethnic groups (Pinkerton, 2002). Foreign sensory panels gave higher scores to goat meat than domestic panelists, with loin chops rated juicier and more tender than leg steaks (Griffin et al., 1992). Meat from Anglo-Nubian crossbred goats was more acceptable, with less "goaty" flavor than meat from Thai native goats, whereas more intense and "goaty" flavor and lower acceptability was found in meat from goats fed higher levels of nutrition (Intarapichet et al., 1994). About 45% of the variation in meat from goats in intensive or extensive production systems was based on tenderness, juiciness, stringy, and cohesive sensory attributes, whereas 21% of the variation separated the samples on meaty attributes (odor and flavor; Carlucci et al., 1998). The flavor of cooked goat meat was affected by animal age, and although evaluations of goat leg meat tenderness were not affected by panelist age, sex, or ethnicity, the palatability was rated lowest by the youngest consumers and by those with the highest incomes (Dawkins et al., 2000).
Goat meat and goat meat products have been compared with meat and meat products from other species. Goat meat had the same juiciness, but less tenderness and less overall satisfaction, as pork, beef, and lamb at comparable maturity and fatness (Smith et al., 1974). Sheep meat had higher palatability (Griffin et al., 1992) and had higher drip loss and juiciness (Schönfeldt et al., 1993b) than goat meat. Goat meat also was found to be less tender, have more residue, shear force resistance, and collagen content than sheep meat (Schönfeldt et al., 1993a). Sen et al. (2004) also reported that goat meat was less tender than sheep meat, although odor, juiciness, and overall palatability were not different. Goat meat flavor was the same as lamb, as reported by Gaili et al. (1972), whereas another study found that goat meat was less intense, tender, and juicy than lamb (Swan et al., 1998). Goat meat patties were distinguishable, but not different in acceptability, from lamb patties, although panelists deemed both to be soft and greasy, whereas goat and lamb curries were very acceptable (Swan et al., 1998). Patties from sheep were more tender, juicy, greasy, and less chewy than those from goat, with species-related "goaty" and "muttony" flavor being clearly distinguishable (Tshabalala et al., 2003). The "goaty" odor of goat meat has been attributed to 4-methyloctanoic (hircinoic) acid (Wong et al., 1975).
The appearance of pan-fried chevon and beef patties did not change with different proportions of goat and beef. Consumer and trained sensory panels found similar juiciness, flavor, and tenderness in patties with less than 40% chevon and more than 60% beef, but increased levels of goat meat in patties increased cooking yield and shear force. It was suggested that goat meat could function as a lean meat source to augment product flavor (James and Berry, 1997). A consumer panel evaluated ground goat and mixed goat and rabbit (1:1) patties as similar in tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and acceptability, but lower in sensory properties, than rabbit patties (Dawkins et al., 2001). Frankfurters with 10, 25, or 40% mechanically deboned (separated) goat meat from young or old animals were preferred or not disliked compared with beef and pork control frankfurters (Marshall et al., 1977). Consumers preferred pork fat instead of shortening as the source of fat in emulsified goat sausages (Intarapichet et al., 1995). More than 66% of consumer panelists indicated that they would purchase smoked goat sausage (Cosenza et al., 2003). Consumers differentiated plain and seasoned goat from similar beef products, with similar sensory scores for beef and goat when goat was served before beef, but lower scores for goat when beef was served before goat meat (Rhee et al., 2003). This may explain the lack of processed or convenient goat meat products available in mainstream food markets. Nonetheless, a majority of university respondents who had eaten goat meat before would purchase goat meat in a supermarket or as an entrée from a restaurant, given the opportunity (Rhee et al., 2000). Lower price, taste, increased availability, and curiosity were given as circumstances when goat meat would be chosen over another meat (Rhee et al., 2000). A sensory map of meat from different species used for food consumption provided information about sensory properties, with sensory color attributes most important in describing differences between species. Goat meat was described as darker in color, with a distinct intense "gamey" flavor, toughness, and hardness compared with the meat from the 14 other species that were characterized (Rødbotten et al., 2004).
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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2 Approved for publication by the Director of the Louisiana Agric. Exp. Stn. as Publ. No. 04-18-0379.
3 Correspondence—phone: 225-578-3438; fax: 225-578-3279; e-mail: kmcmill{at}lsu.edu.
Received for publication August 10, 2004. Accepted for publication March 30, 2005.
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TopAbstractIntroductionInfluences of Production...Meat ProcessingFurther Processed ProductsSummaryImplicationsLiterature Cited |
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