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ANIMAL NUTRITION |
Department of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge 70803-4210
Abstract
Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of nonwaxy (amylose and amylopectin starch) or waxy (amylopectin starch) sorghum on growth, carcass traits, and glucose and insulin kinetics of pigs. In Exp. 1 (95-d), 60 crossbred barrows or gilts (initial and final BW of 24 and 104 kg) were allotted to three treatments with five replications of four pigs per replicate pen in a randomized complete block design. The dietary treatments for Exp. 1 were 1) corn-soybean meal (C-SBM) diet, 2) sorghum-SBM (red pericarp, nonwaxy), and 3) sorghum-SBM (red pericarp, waxy). In Exp. 2, 28 crossbred barrows (initial and final BW of 24 and 64 kg) were allotted to two treatments with three replications of four or five pigs per replicate pen in a randomized complete block design. Growth data were collected for 49 d, and then 20 barrows were fitted with jugular catheters, and then a glucose tolerance test (500 mg glucose/kg BW), an insulin challenge test (0.1 IU of porcine insulin/kg BW), and a feeding challenge were conducted. The dietary treatments for Exp. 2 were 1) sorghum-SBM (white pericarp, nonwaxy) and 2) sorghum-SBM (white pericarp, waxy). In Exp. 1, ADG (P = 0.10) and ADFI (as-fed basis; P = 0.02) were increased (P = 0.10) and gain:feed was decreased (P = 0.04) in pigs fed the sorghum-SBM diets relative to those fed the C-SBM diet. These responses may have resulted from the lower energy content of sorghum relative to corn. Plasma NEFA concentration (collected after a 16-h fast on d 77) was decreased (P = 0.08) in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet relative to those fed the nonwaxy sorghum-SBM diet. Kilograms of carcass fat was decreased (P = 0.07) in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet relative to those fed the nonwaxy sorghum-SBM diet. In Exp. 2, there was no effect (P = 0.57 to 0.93) of sorghum starch type on growth performance by pigs. During the glucose tolerance and insulin challenge tests, there were no effects (P = 0.16 to 0.98) of diet on glucose or insulin kinetics. During the feeding challenge, glucose (P = 0.02) and plasma urea N (P = 0.06) area under the response curves from 0 to 90 min were decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet. Feeding waxy sorghum had minimal effects on growth and carcass traits relative to pigs fed corn or nonwaxy sorghum. Waxy sorghum vs. nonwaxy sorghum had no effect on glucose or insulin kinetics in pigs.
Key Words: Carcass Composition • Glucose • Growth • Insulin • Pigs • Sorghum
Introduction
Increasing the level of carbohydrates in the diet can increase N retention and decrease protein degradation (Fulks et al., 1975
; Fuller et al., 1977). This increase in dietary carbohydrates may improve growth performance and carcass characteristics and affect plasma metabolites of pigs. One way to increase the amount of available carbohydrates in the diet is to use a grain source that has an increased starch availability. Waxy sorghum contains approximately 100% amylopectin, which has been suggested to be more rapidly available than amylose (Rooney and Pflugfelder, 1986; Granfeldt et al., 1993). Nonwaxy sorghum is approximately 70% amylopectin and 30% amylose (Rooney and Pflugfelder, 1986).
Waxy sorghum has been shown to increase growth performance of pigs in some studies (Cohen and Tanksley, 1973; Purser and Tanksley, 1978) but not in others (Myer and Gorbet, 1985; Froetschner et al., 1998). Waxy corn also has been shown to reduce fat thickness and increase muscling (Swantek et al., 1996) or have no effect on fatness and leanness (Camp et al., 2003). Waxy starch also has been shown to affect plasma metabolites in rats and humans, resulting in an increase in insulin insensitivity (van Amelsvoort and Westrate, 1992; Byrnes et al., 1995; Higgins et al., 1996).
Therefore, the purpose of these experiments was to evaluate the effect of waxy sorghum vs. nonwaxy sorghum on growth performance, carcass characteristics, plasma metabolites, and glucose and insulin kinetics in growing-finishing pigs.
Materials and Methods
All methods used in these experiments related to animal care were approved by the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Animal Care and Use Committee. Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of nonwaxy vs. waxy sorghum on growth performance, carcass traits, plasma metabolites, and glucose and insulin kinetics of growing-finishing pigs.
Experiment 1
General.
Sixty crossbred (Yorkshire x Landrace and Yorkshire x Duroc) pigs (30 barrows and 30 gilts) from the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Swine Unit were allotted to three treatments with five replications of four pigs (two barrows and two gilts) per replicate pen on the basis of weight in a randomized complete block design. Ancestry was equalized across treatments. The three dietary treatments were 1) corn-soybean meal (C-SBM), 2) sorghum-SBM (red pericarp, nonwaxy), and 3) sorghum-SBM (red pericarp, waxy). The diets (Table 1) were formulated to contain 1.01% total Lys, 0.70% Ca, and 0.60% P in the growing period, 0.87% total Lys, 0.60% Ca, and 0.50% P in the early-finishing period, and 0.67% total Lys, 0.60% Ca, and 0.50% P in the late-finishing period. All other AA met or exceeded their requirement estimate (NRC, 1998). The AA composition of corn, SBM, and sorghum varieties are shown in Table 2. The values for Trp and sulfur AA were taken from NRC (1998), whereas all other AA values were taken from actual analysis. All feed samples (approximately 200 mg) were placed into 20- x 125-mm glass tubes with Teflon-lined screw caps and hydrolyzed for 24 h at 110°C in 6 N HCl under a N atmosphere in a forced-air oven. A standard sample was run with each batch of amino acid analysis, and, if the average deviation of the test samples vs. the standard was less than or equal to 5%, the values were accepted; otherwise they were rerun. Amino acid concentrations were not corrected for incomplete recovery resulting from hydrolysis. Treatment diets and water were provided for ad libitum consumption throughout the experiment.
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Blood Analysis.
On the day the pigs were switched to the late-finishing diets (d 77), feeders were removed from the pen at 1500. On the following day at 0800, blood was collected from the anterior vena cava and placed into 7-mL tubes containing 17.5 mg of sodium fluoride and 14.0 mg of potassium oxalate (Monoject, Sherwood Medical, St. Louis, MO). The samples were immediately placed on ice and then centrifuged at 1,500 x g at 4°C for 30 min. After centrifugation, the plasma from each sample was collected and frozen until analyzed for NEFA concentrations by a commercial enzymatic procedure (NEFA-C Kit, ACS-ACOD Method; Wako Chemicals USA, Inc., Richmond, VA), glucose concentrations by a spectrophotometric procedure (Sigma, 1989), and insulin concentrations by a RIA procedure validated for porcine samples (Amoikon et al., 1995).
Carcass Traits.
On the day after the growth trial ended, three pigs per replicate pen were selected and slaughtered by exsanguination following electrical stunning at the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Meats Laboratory. An equal number of gilts and barrows were selected within each treatment. In three of the replicate pens, two gilts and one barrow were killed; in one replicate pen, one gilt and one barrow were killed, and in the other replicate pen, three gilts were killed. Conventional carcass measurements and values from total body electrical conductivity (model MQI-27; Meat Quality Inc., Springfield, IL) were determined as described by Matthews et al. (2001b). Percentage of acceptable quality lean and total carcass lean were calculated using NPPC (1991) equations that assume a 5% estimation for intramuscular fat and compensate for unequal BW.
Statistics.
Data were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a randomized complete block design using GLM procedures of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). Orthogonal contrast statements were used to determine grain source (corn vs. sorghum) and sorghum variety (waxy vs. nonwaxy) effects. The statistical model included treatment and replication. Final BW was used as a covariate for the carcass data. Treatment differences were considered significant at alpha = 0.10. The pen of pigs served as the experimental unit for all data.
Experiment 2
Growth Performance.
Twenty-eight crossbred (Yorkshire x Landrace and Yorkshire x Duroc) barrows from the Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Swine Unit with an initial and final BW of 24 and 64 kg were allotted to two treatments with three replications of four or five pigs per replicate pen on the basis of weight in a randomized complete block design. The two dietary treatments were sorghum-SBM (white pericarp, nonwaxy) and sorghum-SBM (white pericarp, waxy). The diets (Table 1
) were formulated to contain 0.85% total Lys, 0.70% Ca, and 0.60% P. The Lys level used was 110% of the requirement previously determined for these pigs (Knowles et al., 1997). This level was used to minimize the percentage of SBM and maximize the percentage of sorghum in the diets. All other AA met or exceeded their requirement estimate (NRC, 1998). The growth trial lasted 49 d. Treatment diets and water were provided for ad libitum consumption throughout the experiment. Pigs and feeders were weighed every 2 wk for calculation of ADG, ADFI, and G:F.
Glucose and Insulin Kinetics and Feeding Challenge.
At the end of the growth trial, two barrows per replicate pen, with an average BW of 65 kg, were selected (weight and ancestry were kept similar across treatments) and penned individually in 0.6- x 1.2-m polyvinyl chloride metabolism crates. Indwelling venous catheters were surgically inserted as previously described by Amoikon et al. (1995) after a 4-d adjustment period to the crates. Two days after catheterization, an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT; 500 mg glucose/kg of BW) and insulin challenge test (IVICT; 0.1 IU of crystalline porcine insulin/kg of BW) were conducted as described by Amoikon et al. (1995). One pig was removed from the control group because of health reasons before conducting the IVGTT and IVICT. The glucose tolerance test was conducted at 0800 (pigs were held without feed for 16 h before the IVGTT), followed by the IVICT test at 1300. Blood samples (4 mL) were collected at –10, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 150, and 180 min, and placed in tubes containing 10 mg of sodium fluoride and 8 mg of potassium oxalate. Area under the response curve (AUC), clearance rate, and half-life for glucose and insulin during the IVGTT were determined by the methods of Matthews et al. (2001a). The –10- and 0-min samples (prechallenge samples) also were analyzed for plasma urea N by the methods of Laborde et al. (1995), total cholesterol by an enzymatic-colorimetric procedure (Sigma Kit #352-100; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by first isolating HDL using a HDL kit (Sigma Kit #352-1, Sigma) and then HDL cholesterol was determined using a cholesterol kit (Sigma Kit #352-100, Sigma), and NEFA concentrations as previously described. The prechallenge values are an average of the –10- and 0-min samples.
A feeding challenge was conducted as described by Johnston et al. (2004) except blood samples (4 mL) were collected at –60, –45, –30, –15, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, 150, 165, 180, 195, 210, 225, 240, 255, 270, 285, and 300 min with the 0 time representing the time of feeding. Water was added to the feeders 30 min after the initial presentation of feed and water. All pigs consumed their feed within 45 min after the feed was presented. Plasma was analyzed for glucose, insulin, and urea N levels as previously described. For the feeding challenge, area under the response curve for plasma glucose, insulin, and urea N were determined using trapezoidal geometry (0 to 90 and 0 to 300 min), and the –60-, –45-, –30-, –15-, and 0-min samples were used to establish the baseline.
Statistics.
Growth data were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a randomized complete block design using the GLM procedures of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc.). The statistical model included treatment and replication, and the pen of pigs served as the experimental unit. The prechallenge metabolite and hormone data, including AUC, were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a completely randomized design using the GLM procedures of SAS. Metabolite and hormone data over time were analyzed with treatment, time, and treatment x time in the model. The individual pig served as the experimental unit. Treatment differences were considered significant at alpha = 0.10.
Results
Experiment 1
Growth Performance.
Pigs fed the sorghum-SBM diets had an increased ADG during the early-finishing period and in the overall data and an increased ADFI during all growth periods compared with pigs fed the C-SBM diets (Table 3). Gain:feed, however, was decreased during the growing period and in the overall data in pigs fed the sorghum-SBM diets compared with those fed the corn-SBM diets.
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). Plasma NEFA concentrations were decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet relative to those fed the nonwaxy sorghum-SBM diet.
Carcass Traits.
There was no effect of diet on longissimus muscle area, 10th-rib backfat thickness, average backfat thickness, ham butt-face fat thickness, carcass length, dressing percent, carcass fat-free lean, percentage of carcass fat-free lean, percentage of carcass fat, lean:fat, total carcass lean, or percentage of acceptable quality lean (Table 4). Total carcass fat was decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet relative to those fed any other dietary treatment.
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).
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). Fasting plasma urea N levels were decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum diet relative to those fed nonwaxy sorghum. During the IVGTT (Figure 1) and IVICT (Figure 2), there was no effect of sorghum starch type on glucose or insulin kinetics in pigs. During the feeding challenge (Figure 3), there was no effect of sorghum starch type on plasma glucose, insulin, or urea N AUC from 0 to 300 min (Table 7). However, plasma glucose and urea N AUC measured from 0 to 90 min was decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum.
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In Exp. 1, pigs fed the sorghum-SBM diets had an increase in ADFI during the growing and early-finishing phases, resulting in an increase in ADFI for the overall growth period. The increased ADFI in pigs fed sorghum may be due to the lower energy content of sorghum relative to corn (NRC, 1998). In Exp. 1, during the early finishing phase, ADG was increased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum-SBM diet relative to pigs fed the C-SBM diet, resulting in an increased ADG for the overall growth period. However, sorghum starch type (waxy vs. nonwaxy) did not affect growth performance of pigs during any of the other growth phases. There also was no effect on growth performance when pigs were fed nonwaxy or waxy sorghum during Exp. 2. These data disagree with reports by Cohen and Tanksley (1973) and Purser and Tanksley (1978), who reported an increased growth performance in growing and finishing pigs fed waxy sorghum. Also, Camp et al. (2003) reported an increased ADG in growing-finishing pigs fed waxy corn relative to those fed nonwaxy corn. Myer and Gorbet (1985) and Froetschner et al. (1998) reported no effect on growth performance when feeding waxy sorghum to nursery pigs, but Perez and Aumaitre (1979) reported an increase in ADG and a decrease in feed conversion in nursery pigs fed waxy corn vs. nonwaxy corn. Collins et al. (2003) reported an increase in ADG but a decrease in feed efficiency in broilers fed waxy corn vs. nonwaxy corn from 0 to 49 d.
Increasing the supply of available carbohydrates in the diet would be expected to have a beneficial effect on carcass traits if energy is limiting protein accretion. Carbohydrates have been reported to have a protein-sparing effect resulting in an increase in N retention (Fuller et al., 1977). Also, Fulks et al. (1975) reported that glucose specifically inhibits protein degradation. However, the only carcass trait affected by feeding waxy sorghum in our study was kilograms of carcass fat, which was decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum relative to pigs fed corn or nonwaxy sorghum. To our knowledge, there are no published data on the effect of feeding waxy or nonwaxy sorghum on carcass traits of pigs. Waxy corn has been reported to decrease 10th-rib fat thickness (Swantek, 1996). However, 10th-rib fat thickness was not affected by diet in our study. Camp et al. (2003) reported an increase in carcass weight and length when waxy corn was fed to pigs, but no effect on fatness or leanness. Collins et al. (2003) reported an increase in abdominal fat as a percentage of chilled carcass but no difference in carcass yield percent in broilers fed waxy corn vs. nonwaxy corn.
Plasma NEFA levels were decreased in pigs fed waxy sorghum relative to those fed nonwaxy sorghum in Exp.1 but not affected in Exp. 2. Camp et al. (2003) reported no effect on NEFA levels when pigs were fed waxy or nonwaxy corn. However, plasma NEFA levels were increased in humans consuming a diet containing a ratio of amylose:amylopectin of 0:100 relative to a diet containing a ratio of amylose:amylopectin of 45:55 (van Amelsvoort and Westrate, 1992). We have no explanation for the differences in our results relative to the results of van Amelsvoort and Westrate (1992). In Exp. 2, fasting plasma urea N levels were decreased in pigs fed waxy sorghum. During the feeding challenge, plasma urea N AUC was decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum diet. However, the decrease occurred only during the first 90 min. The decrease in plasma urea N concentration may be due to an increase in available carbohydrates in the diet resulting in an increased energy for protein synthesis. This response disagrees with data by Graeff et al. (1975) and Camp et al. (2003), who reported no effect of feeding waxy or nonwaxy corn on blood or serum urea N levels to rats or pigs, respectively. In Exp. 2, there was no effect of sorghum starch type on plasma total or HDL cholesterol, which agrees with Camp et al. (2003).
In Exp. 2 during the IVGTT and IVICT, there was no effect of sorghum starch type on glucose or insulin kinetics, and during the feeding challenge, plasma glucose AUC was decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum diet. Also, in Exp. 1, plasma glucose concentrations were numerically decreased in pigs fed the waxy sorghum diet relative to those fed the corn diet. These results were unexpected because the carbohydrates in the waxy sorghum diet should be more readily available (Rooney and Pflugfelder, 1986; Granfeldt et al., 1993). These data also do not agree with Byrnes et al. (1995) and Higgins et al. (1996), who reported that feeding diets with increased amylopectin content to rats increased plasma glucose and insulin levels. Also, van Amelsvoort and Westrate (1992) reported that high-amylopectin diets increased plasma glucose and insulin levels in humans after a meal. Most research in humans and rats has compared "normal" starch (approximately 70% amylopectin and 30% amylose) vs. high amylose starch, not "normal" starch with waxy or 100% amylopectin starch. Camp et al. (2003) reported no effects on insulin (fed or fasted) in pigs fed waxy vs. nonwaxy corn.
Feeding waxy sorghum relative to nonwaxy sorghum had no effect on growth performance, minimal effects on carcass traits, and some minor effects on plasma metabolites. Also, there were no effects of diet on glucose or insulin kinetics in pigs fed the waxy sorghum.
Implications
Sorghum was equivalent to corn for growing-finishing pigs with no major effects on growth or carcass traits. Waxy sorghum provided no benefit to nonwaxy sorghum or corn. Also, waxy sorghum did not cause insulin insensitivity in pigs.
Footnotes
1 Approved for publication by the director of the Louisiana Agric. Exp. Stn. as manuscript No. 03-18-1320. 
2 The authors would like to thank the Texas Grain Sorghum Producer’s Board (Abernathy, TX) for support of this research, F. LeMieux and the Louisiana State Univ. Agric. Center Swine Unit for assistance with the animals, and the Louisiana State Univ. Agric. Center Meats Laboratory for assistance with data collection. The authors also would like to thank A. Chapa, L. Gentry, T. Lavergne, and G. Treme for assistance with data collection and sample analyses.
3 Correspondence—e-mail: lsouthern{at}agctr.lsu.edu.
Received for publication August 5, 2003. Accepted for publication February 18, 2004.
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