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Effect of chromium propionate on growth, carcass traits, pork quality, and plasma metabolites in growing-finishing pigs^1,2

J. L. Shelton^*, R. L. Payne^*, S. L. Johnston^*, T. D. Bidner^*, L. L. Southern^*,3, R. L. Odgaard and T. G. Page^*

^* Department of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge 70803-4210 and and Kemin Industries, Inc., Des Moines, IA 50301

	Abstract

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Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of dietary Cr, as Cr propionate, on growth, carcass traits, pork quality, and plasma metabolites in growing-finishing swine. Ninety-six crossbred gilts (Exp. 1; initial and final BW of 28 [SEM = 0.41] and 109 [SEM = 2.11] kg) or 144 PIC Cambrough 22 barrows (Exp. 2; initial and final BW of 26 [SEM = 0.39] and 111 [SEM = 2.52] kg) were allotted to six or four dietary treatments, respectively, with six replications and four (Exp. 1) or six (Exp. 2) pigs in each replicate pen blocked by weight in randomized complete block designs. The six dietary treatments for Exp. 1 were 1) corn-soybean meal (C-SBM), 2) C-SBM + 50 ppb Cr, 3) C-SBM + 100 ppb Cr, 4) C-SBM + 200 ppb Cr, 5) C-SBM low NE diet, and 6) C-SBM low NE diet + 200 ppb Cr. The four dietary treatments for Exp. 2 were C-SBM with 0, 100, 200, or 300 ppb Cr. Growth, carcass traits, and plasma metabolite (collected on d 29 and at each phase change) data were taken at the end of both experiments and pork quality data were taken at the end of Exp. 1. There was no effect (P > 0.10) on overall growth performance when pigs were fed graded levels of Cr (Exp. 1 and 2) or Cr in the positive control or low NE diets (Exp. 1). Longissimus muscle area, ham weight, ham fat-free lean, and total carcass lean were increased in pigs fed 200 ppb in the positive control diets but decreased in pigs fed 200 ppb Cr in the low NE diets (Cr x NE, P < 0.08). There was no effect of Cr concentration (P > 0.10) on carcass traits in Exp. 2. In Exp. 1, cook loss of a fresh or a frozen chop was decreased (P < 0.10) by 200 ppb Cr. In Exp. 1, NEFA concentration was decreased (P < 0.05) in pigs fed Cr in the positive control or low NE diets during the early-finishing period. In Exp. 2, the addition of Cr decreased NEFA (quadratic, P < 0.09) and plasma urea N (linear, P < 0.02) concentrations and tended to increase total cholesterol and high density lipoproteins (quadratic, P < 0.09). In these experiments, Cr propionate had no effect on overall growth performance, variable effects on carcass traits and plasma metabolites, and some positive effects on pork quality, especially water holding capacity of a fresh or frozen chop.

Key Words: Blood • Composition • Carcasses • Chromium • Meat Quality • Pigs

	Introduction

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The research with Cr supplementation to swine diets has been primarily conducted with Cr tripicolinate (CrPic), Cr nicotinate (CrNic), or Cr chloride (CrCl₃). Research with Cr propionate (CrProp) is more limited, but Matthews et al. (2001c) reported that CrProp was a bioavailable source of Cr. The addition of Cr to diets for growing-finishing pigs has been reported to increase carcass leanness and decrease carcass fatness (NRC, 1997). But the results have been variable. Page et al. (1993) and Lindemann et al. (1995) reported an increase in longissimus muscle area (LMA) and a decrease in 10th-rib backfat thickness when CrPic was added to growing-finishing pig diets. However, Evock-Clover et al. (1993) and Mooney and Cromwell (1997) reported inconsistent or no effects on carcass traits with the supplementation of CrPic or CrCl₃.

There has been limited research on the effect of Cr supplementation on pork quality. Boleman et al. (1995) reported no effects of Cr supplementation on shear force or water holding capacity. O’Quinn et al. (1998) reported that CrNic decreased drip loss in chops from gilts and increased Hunter A:B ratio in chops from barrows.

Chromium supplementation also has been reported to have an effect on plasma metabolites in pigs. Page et al. (1993) reported that CrPic decreased serum cholesterol and NEFA concentrations, but triglyceride (TG) concentrations were not affected. However, Evock-Clover et al. (1993) reported that CrPic increased serum cholesterol. Chromium also has been shown to have a positive effect on carbohydrate metabolism (Matthews et al., 2001c). Thus, we hypothesized that Cr might increase carbohydrate utilization and in doing so, increase growth performance of pigs fed low energy diets.

Therefore, the objectives of these experiments were to determine the effect of Cr, as CrProp, on growth, carcass traits, pork quality, and plasma metabolites in growing-finishing pigs fed low energy diets.

	Materials and Methods

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All methods used in these experiments were approved by the Louisiana State University (LSU) Agricultural Center Animal Care and Use Committee.

Experiment 1

General. One hundred forty-four crossbred (Yorkshire x Landrace and Yorkshire x Duroc) gilts with average initial and final BW of 27.7 [SEM = 0.41] and 109.1 [SEM = 2.11] kg, respectively, were used in this experiment. The pigs were allotted to six dietary treatments on the basis of weight and ancestry in a randomized complete block design. Each treatment was replicated six times with four pigs in each replicate pen. The six dietary treatments were as follows: 1) corn-soybean meal (C-SBM) basal, 2) C-SBM + 50 ppb Cr, 3) C-SBM + 100 ppb Cr, 4) C-SBM + 200 ppb Cr, 5) C-SBM + 20% wheat middlings, and 6) C-SBM + 20% wheat middlings + 200 ppb Cr (Table 1). The source of Cr was Cr propionate (KemTRACE Chromium, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA). Wheat middlings were added to Diets 5 and 6 to decrease the NE content. A four-phase growing-finishing program was used, and diets for this experiment were formulated to provide 0.99, 0.81, 0.75, and 0.62% of true ileal digestible lysine for weight ranges of 20 to 43, 43 to 66, 66 to 89, and 89 to 113 kg, respectively. All AA met a minimum of 105% of the true ileal digestible AA requirement according to each growth period for gilts gaining 350 g of lean per day (NRC, 1998). The ratio of lysine to NE level was held constant. The diets were formulated to contain 0.70% Ca and 0.62% P in the early-growing period, 0.61% Ca and 0.55% P in the late-growing period, 0.58% Ca and 0.53% P in the early-finishing period, and 0.55% Ca and 0.50% P in the late-finishing period. Amino acid, mineral, and NE values for corn, SBM, and wheat middlings were based on the NRC (1998). The Cr levels of the basal diets were determined (EPA Method 6020), and they contained 1,740 ppb Cr for the C-SBM control diet and 1,480 ppb Cr for the C-SBM diet with 20% wheat middlings. Treatment diets and water were provided ad libitum throughout the experiment.

Blood Analysis. On d 28 of the experiment, feeders were removed from the pens at 1600. On d 29 at 0800, blood was collected via the anterior vena cava and placed into 7-mL tubes containing 17.5 mg of sodium flouride and 14.0 mg of potassium oxalate (Monoject, Sherwood Medical, St. Louis, MO). The samples were then centrifuged at 1,500 x g at 4°C for 30 min. Following centrifugation, plasma from each sample was collected and frozen at -20°C until analysis. Blood was collected in a similar fashion on d 54, 88, and 110 (during exsanguination), which coincided with each phase change and the conclusion of the study. The samples were analyzed for NEFA concentrations by a commercial enzymatic procedure (NEFA-C Kit, ACS-ACOD Method; Wako Chemicals USA, Inc., Richmond, VA). The blood collected during exsanguination also was analyzed for cortisol by using a RIA kit (Cortisol ¹²⁵I RIA Kit, ICN Biochemicals, Inc., Costa Mesa, CA).

Carcass Evaluation. On the day after the growth trial ended, three pigs per pen were randomly selected and slaughtered by exsanguination after electrical stunning at the LSU Agricultural Center Meats Laboratory. Linear carcass measurements and values from total body electrical conductivity (TOBEC; Model MQI-27: Meat Quality Inc., Springfield, IL) were determined as described by Matthews et al. (2001d).

Percentage acceptable quality lean and total carcass lean were determined by NPPC (1991) equations that assume a 5% estimation for intramuscular fat and compensate for unequal BW.

Pork Quality. Pork quality measurements were taken from the left side of the carcass after a 20-h chill at 2°C and determined as described by Matthews et al. (2001d) with the following exceptions. Drip loss was determined by a suspension method. One chop (1.27 cm) was taken from the 10th rib, deboned, external fat removed, weighed, and suspended by a hook in a Whirl-pak bag. After 24 h, the samples were weighed, and drip loss was determined by the equation

Thaw loss was determined on the 9th rib after being frozen at -40°C for 90 d.

A chop was taken from the 8th rib, deboned, external fat removed, homogenized, and frozen at 24 h postmortem. The percentage moisture and intramuscular lipid contents were determined on these chops using a CEM (CEM Corporation, Model AVC-80, Matthews, NC) with a solvent recovery system (Model AEF-81, CEM Corporation).

Rectal temperature was taken during exsanguination as a measure of the stress of pigs at slaughter (Matthews et al., 2001b).

Statistical Analyses. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a randomized complete block design using the GLM procedures of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). The statistical model included treatment and replication. Contrast statements appropriate for unequally spaced treatments were used to determine linear and quadratic relationships for the 0, 50, 100, or 200 ppb Cr in the positive control diets. Contrast statements also were included to examine Cr, NE, and Cr x NE effects as a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments that included the positive control diet with 0 or 200 ppb added Cr and the low NE diets with 0 or 200 ppb added Cr. Treatment differences were considered significant at = 0.10. The pen of pigs was the experimental unit for all data.

Experiment 2

General. One hundred forty-four PIC Cambrough 22 barrows with average initial and final BW of 26.4 (SEM = 0.39) and 111.4 (SEM = 2.52) kg, respectively, were used in this experiment. The pigs were allotted to four dietary treatments on the basis of weight in a randomized complete block design. Each treatment was replicated six times with six pigs in each replicate pen. The four dietary treatments were the C-SBM basal with 0, 100, 200, or 300 ppb Cr, as CrProp (Table 1). The treatment diets were formulated according to the suggested standards of PIC. A four phase growing-finishing program was used and diets for this experiment were formulated to provide 1.02, 0.80, 0.73, and 0.66 true ileal digestible lysine for weight ranges of 26 to 40, 40 to 70, 70 to 93, and 93 to 111 kg, respectively. All AA met a minimum of 105% of the true ileal digestible AA requirement according to each growth phase for barrows gaining 350 g of lean per day. The diets also were formulated to contain 0.80% Ca and 0.70% P in the early-growing phase, 0.70 % Ca and 0.58% P in the late-growing phase, 0.65% Ca and 0.54% P in the early-finishing phase, and 0.50% Ca and 0.40% P in the late-finishing phase. The Cr level of the basal diet was determined (EPA Method 6020), and it contained 1,770 ppb Cr. Treatment diets and water were provided ad libitum throughout the experiment.

During all phases of growth, pigs were housed in an open-sided barn in 1.52- x 4.27-m pens with floors that were aluminum slats (1.52 x 2.4 m) and solid concrete (1.52 x 1.83 m). Pigs were weighed at the end of each phase for calculation of ADG, ADFI, and gain:feed.

Blood Analyses. On d 0 and 30, blood was collected from all pigs. Blood was collected and NEFA were analyzed as previously described for Exp. 1. Urea N concentrations were determined by the methods of Laborde et al. (1995). Total cholesterol (TC) concentrations were determined by an enzymatic-colorimetric procedure (Sigma kit #352-100; Sigma Chemical Co.). The high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) fraction was isolated using an HDL kit (Sigma Kit #352-1), and then HDL cholesterol was determined using a cholesterol kit (Sigma kit #352-100). The low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) fraction was determined using a cholesterol kit (Sigma kit #353-A). Triglycerides were determined using an enzymatic-colorimetric procedure (Sigma Kit #339-20; Sigma Chemical Co.).

Carcass Evaluation. On the day after the growth trial ended, three pigs per pen were randomly selected and slaughtered, and the carcass measurements and values from TOBEC analysis that were obtained in this experiment were determined as previously described in Exp. 1.

Statistical Analyses. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures appropriate for a randomized complete block design using the GLM procedures of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc.). The level of NEFA and plasma urea N on d 0 were used as a covariate when analyzing d-30 NEFA and plasma urea N concentrations, respectively. Contrast statements appropriate for equally spaced treatments were used to determine linear and quadratic relationships. The statistical model included treatment and replication. Treatment differences were considered significant at = 0.10. The pen of pigs was the experimental unit for all data.

	Results

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Experiment 1

Growth Performance. During the early- and late-growing periods, ADG and gain:feed were decreased (P < 0.03) in pigs fed the low NE diets (Table 2). Daily feed intake was increased (P < 0.03) in pigs fed the low NE diets, but only during the late-growing period. During the late-growing period, ADG was increased in pigs fed 200 ppb Cr in the positive control diets but not affected in pigs fed the low NE diets (Cr x NE, P < 0.06). Also, ADG was linearly increased as Cr increased in the positive control diets (P < 0.07). Gain:feed was increased in pigs fed 200 ppb Cr in the positive control diets but decreased in pigs fed 200 ppb Cr in the low NE diets (Cr x NE, P < 0.01). There was no effect on overall growth performance of pigs fed graded levels of Cr or the NE content of the diet.

Growth Performance. During the late-finishing period, ADFI was decreased as Cr increased in the diet (linear, P < 0.01; Table 6). There was no effect on overall growth performance when pigs were fed graded levels of Cr.

	Discussion

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The supplementation of Cr has been shown to increase carcass leanness and decrease carcass fatness (Mooney and Cromwell, 1997; Page et al., 1993). However, results have been variable (NRC, 1997). In Exp. 1, LMA and total carcass lean were increased when 200 ppb Cr was added to the positive control diets, but there was no effect on carcass fatness. These data agree with reports that Cr increases LMA (Page et al., 1993; Lindemann et al., 1995; Kornegay et al., 1997), but they do not agree with reports that Cr decreases fatness (Page et al., 1993; Lindemann et al., 1995; Min et al. 1997). Mooney and Cromwell (1995, 1997) reported an increase in the percentage and accretion rates of muscle but a decrease in percentage of fat. Furthermore, in Exp. 2, Cr addition did not affect carcass leanness or fatness, but there was a trend for Cr to increase LMA. The variability in carcass characteristics seen in our study agrees with the variable results found in the literature (NRC, 1997).

The effects of CrProp on carcass leanness were different in Exp. 1 compared with Exp. 2. The effect of Cr on most responses in pigs are variable (NRC, 1998). However, the diets in Exp. 2 contained more NE, and pigs ate more, gained faster, and had more carcass fat than pigs in Exp. 1. Some of these responses are because barrows were used in Exp. 2 and gilts were used in Exp. 1, which is another obvious difference in Exp. 1 vs. Exp. 2; however, to date, there are no data to suggest that any of these differences in experimental methodology affect the responses obtained from Cr.

There is limited research on the effect of Cr supplementation on pork quality. Boleman et al. (1995) reported no effect on drip loss, cook loss, total loss, or shear force when CrPic was added to swine diets. O’Quinn et al. (1998) reported a decreased visual color score of chops from barrows and gilts when CrNic was increased in the diet and an increased Hunter A:B ratio (paler chop) in barrows. Furthermore, O’Quinn et al. (1998) reported decreased marbling and drip loss in gilts fed diets with supplemental CrPic. However, Matthews et al. (2003) reported an increase in marbling when pigs were fed CrProp. In Exp. 1, the addition of 200 ppb Cr to positive control or low NE diets increased subjective color score (redder chop), which is not in agreement with the results of O’Quinn et al. (1998). The addition of 200 ppb Cr decreased firmness/wetness in the positive control diets. Cook loss, total loss, and shear force of a fresh chop were decreased when 200 ppb Cr was added to the low NE diets in this experiment. Our data are in agreement with Matthews et al. (2001a, 2002), who indicated a decrease in drip loss and thaw loss, respectively, in chops from pigs fed CrProp. Furthermore, in the present study, cook loss and total loss of a frozen chop were decreased as Cr increased in the diet. These data suggest that Cr supplementation may have an effect on water holding capacity.

Matthews et al. (2001b) indicated that rectal temperature can be used as a measure of stress in pigs. In our study, rectal temperature was decreased in pigs fed 200 ppb Cr in the positive control diets, indicating a decreased stress level for these pigs at slaughter. However, cortisol concentration measured on blood taken during exsanguination was not affected by Cr. This response suggests that Cr addition may not have influenced stress of pigs at slaughter. Ward et al. (1997) reported that Cr supplementation did not improve performance of pigs that were stressed due to inadequate pen spacing. However, other reports have indicated that Cr addition may decrease cortisol concentration in calves (Mowat et al., 1993; Kegley et al., 1996).

The NEFA concentrations were decreased when 200 ppb Cr was added to the positive control or low NE diets during the late-growing (Exp. 2) or early-finishing (Exp. 1) periods, but NEFA concentrations for the other growth periods were not affected. The decrease in NEFA concentrations agrees with Amoikin et al. (1995) and Matthews et al. (2001c), who reported that NEFA concentrations were decreased or tended to be decreased in pigs fed diets with added CrProp or CrPic. However, Min et al. (1997) reported no effect on NEFA concentrations in 60-kg pigs fed diets with supplemental CrPic. These data indicate that the addition of CrProp may have an effect on lipid metabolism in swine.

In Exp. 2, plasma urea N concentrations were linearly decreased as Cr increased in the diets, which agrees with Amoikin et al. (1995), but Matthews et al. (2001c) reported no effect of Cr supplementation on plasma urea N concentrations.

In Exp. 2, TC was increased, due to an increase in HDL, in pigs fed the 100 and 200 ppb addition of Cr. These data agree with Amoikin et al. (1995), who reported an increase in fasting plasma cholesterol in pigs fed CrPic. Matthews et al. (2001c) reported no effect on TC or HDL:TC ratio in pigs fed diets with added CrProp or CrPic, but these authors reported a tendency for HDL to be decreased in pigs fed CrProp but not CrPic. Page et al. (1993) reported a decrease or no effect on serum cholesterol when CrPic was supplemented in the diets of swine. Data from Exp. 2 also indicated no effect on LDL as CrProp was added to the diets.

In Exp. 2, TG levels were not affected by Cr, which agrees with Page et al. (1993). Min et al. (1997) reported no effect on TG concentrations of pigs at 60 kg BW but a reduction in TG at 100 kg BW when 200 or 400 ppb Cr as CrPic was added to the diet.

The effect of Cr in low NE diets was investigated because of the effect of Cr on plasma glucose and insulin levels. Amoikin et al. (1995) reported that CrPic increased insulin sensitivity in an intravenous glucose tolerance test and in an intravenous insulin challenge test. In addition, Steele et al. (1977) reported that a "glucose tolerance factor" that contains Cr increased the hypoglycemic action of insulin during an intravenous insulin challenge test. In our study, there was no effect of Cr in pigs fed the low NE diets on overall growth performance, which agrees with a report by van de Ligt et al. (2002), who added CrPic to growing pig diets that contained 70, 80, or 90% of the energy requirement. Pigs fed the low NE diets in Exp. 1 had a decrease in ham butt-face fat thickness, total carcass fat, and intramuscular lipid. Furthermore, the addition of Cr to the low NE diets negatively influenced NPPC total carcass lean but positively influenced total loss and shear force of a fresh chop. These results do not agree with van de Ligt et al. (2002), who reported no effect on carcass characteristics when CrPic was added to low energy diets.

These data suggest the addition of Cr, as CrProp, at levels of 200 ppb or greater does not result in a further improvement in growth performance or plasma metabolites. However, the addition of Cr as CrProp may have an effect on carcass traits and pork quality, especially in water holding capacity of loin chops. The addition of CrProp to the low energy diets had little effect.

	Implications

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The addition of chromium propionate to growing-finishing swine diets may improve some aspects of carcass traits and pork quality, especially with respect to water holding capacity. More research is necessary to evaluate the consistency of these results.

	Footnotes

 
¹ Approved for publication by the director of the Louisiana Agric. Exp. Stn. as Manuscript No. 02-18-0723.

² The authors are thankful to F. LeMieux, M. Persica, J. Carothers, E. Shelton, J. Matthews, A. Guzik, and S. Williams for assistance with data collection and laboratory analyses.

³ Correspondence—lsouthern{at}agctr.lsu.edu.

Received for publication October 23, 2002. Accepted for publication June 18, 2003.

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