J. Anim. Sci. 2003. 81:2488-2495
© 2003 American Society of Animal Science
Effect of carbohydrate source on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality of growing-finishing pigs1,2,3
L. K. Camp,
L. L. Southern4 and
T. D. Bidner
Department of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803-4210
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Abstract
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Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of substituting a more available dietary carbohydrate (CHO) for portions of corn or fat in the diet on growth performance, carcass traits, meat quality, and serum or plasma metabolites in growing-finishing pigs. A three-phase feeding program was used with corn–soybean meal diets formulated to provide 105% of the Lys requirement for barrows or gilts gaining 325 g of lean daily in Exp. 1 or gilts gaining 350 g of lean daily in Exp. 2. Diets were isoenergetic within experiments. All other nutrients met or exceeded suggested requirements. In Exp. 1, pigs were allotted to three dietary treatments (0, 7.5, or 15.0% sucrose), with three replications of barrows and three replications of gilts, and with three or four pigs per replicate pen; average initial and final BW were 25.2 and 106.7 kg. In Exp. 2, gilts were allotted to two dietary treatments (waxy [high amylopectin] or nonwaxy [75% amylopectin and 25% amylose] corn as the grain source), with five replications of four gilts per replicate pen; average initial and final BW were 37.7 and 100.0 kg. In Exp. 1, ADG and gain:feed ratio increased linearly (P < 0.02) as dietary sucrose increased. Minolta color scores, a* and b*, and drip loss (P < 0.06) also increased linearly with added sucrose. In Exp. 2, ADG, carcass weight and length, and the Minolta a* value were greater for pigs fed waxy corn (P < 0.08) than for those fed nonwaxy corn. Feed intake, longissimus muscle area, 10th-rib and average backfat thickness, dressing percentage, fat-free lean, percentage of lean and muscling, lean gain per day, total fat, percentage fat, lean:fat ratio, serum or plasma metabolites (Exp. 1: serum urea N; Exp. 2: serum urea N, and plasma nonesterified fatty acids, triacylglycerols, total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, insulin, and total protein), pH of the longissimus muscle, and subjective muscle scores (color, firmness–wetness, and marbling) were not affected by diet in either experiment. In summary, increasing availability of dietary CHO in growing-finishing pig diets improved growth performance, but it did not affect carcass traits.
Key Words: Carbohydrates • Carcass Composition • Cultivars • Growth • Pigs • Sucrose
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Introduction
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Starch carbohydrates (CHO) are an excellent energy source for pigs. Increasing the amount of CHO in the diet increases N retention, and glucose specifically inhibits protein degradation (Fulks et al., 1975
; Fuller et al., 1977). Therefore, increasing the amount of available CHO in the diet by adding a simple CHO (e.g., sucrose) or by using a grain source that has greater starch availability may improve growth rate and carcass traits of pigs.
Dietary sucrose addition has been shown to improve growth performance and carcass traits of pigs in some studies (Brooks, 1972; Schumacher et al., 1986; Beech et al., 1990) but not in others (Beech et al., 1991a,b). Research with pigs fed varying starch types (waxy vs. nonwaxy) also has been inconsistent. All the starch in waxy grains is in the form of amylopectin (Rosa et al., 1977a; Rooney and Pflugfelder, 1986). Compared with typical sorghum, waxy sorghum improved growth performance of pigs in some studies (Cohen and Tanksley, 1973; Purser and Tanksley, 1978) but not in others (Myer and Gorbet, 1985; Froetschner et al., 1998). Although waxy corn did not affect growth performance of pigs in several studies (Wahlstrom et al., 1977; Johnston and Anderson, 1996; Swantek et al., 1996), it has reduced fat thickness and increased muscling (Swantek et al., 1996). Rosa et al. (1977a,b) reported that energy and protein utilization were not affected by starch type of corn, but N digestibility was improved in pigs fed waxy sorghum (Purser et al., 1979) and corn hybrids (Sachtleben et al., 1975). Waxy starch (amylopectin) increases insulin insensitivity in humans, whereas diets high in amylose tend to normalize the insulin response (van Amelsvoort and Westrate, 1992; Byrnes et al., 1995; Higgins et al., 1996).
Therefore, the purpose of these experiments was to evaluate the effect of added dietary sucrose or waxy corn vs. nonwaxy (normal) corn on growth, carcass traits, and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs.
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Materials and Methods
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General
The experiments were approved by the Louisiana State University (LSU) Agricultural Center Animal Care and Use Committee. Pigs from the LSU Agricultural Center Swine Unit were allotted to treatments on the basis of weight in randomized complete block designs; ancestry was equalized across treatments. Pigs were housed in a totally enclosed building with galvanized slotted floors with 1.83- x 2.44-m pens during the growing period, and in a curtain-sided building with 1.5- x 3.0-m pens and concrete slotted floors during the early- and late-finishing periods. The buildings were naturally ventilated (windows or curtains, respectively) and were not environmentally controlled. Experiment 1 was conducted from October 1998 to January 1999, and Exp. 2 was conducted from October to December 1999. Diets and water were provided ad libitum, and pigs and feeders were weighed every 2 wk for calculation of ADG, ADFI, and gain:feed ratio.
Experiment 1.
Seventy crossbred [Landrace x Yorkshire or (Landrace x Yorkshire) x Peitrain] growing-finishing pigs were allotted to three dietary treatments (Table 1; 0.0, 7.5, or 15.0% sucrose) with six replicates (three replications each of barrows and gilts) of three or four pigs per pen within each replicate. Corn–soybean meal diets (Table 1) were used in a three-phase feeding program. Diets were formulated to provide 105% of the NRC (1998) total Lys requirement of barrows and gilts with 325 g of lean gain per day. They were formulated based on tabular AA and net energy values for corn, soybean meal, and sucrose (NRC, 1998). Net energy was equalized within each phase by replacing corn and dry fat with sucrose. The treatment diets were fed from an average initial BW of 25.2 kg to slaughter at an average BW of 106.7 kg. All pigs were switched from the growing to early-finishing diet at an average weight of 50.1 kg, and from the early-finishing to the late-finishing diet at an average weight of 78.4 kg. The experiment lasted 95 d.
Experiment 2.
Forty crossbred (Landrace x Yorkshire) growing-finishing gilts were allotted to two dietary treatments (Table 2; waxy [high amylopectin] or nonwaxy corn [75% amylopectin and 25% amylopectin]) with five replicates of four gilts per pen within each replicate. The high-oil corns were grown in 1998 in Illinois, and they were not isolines. Corn–soybean meal diets (Table 2) were used in a three-phase feeding program. They were formulated to provide 105% of the true ileal digestible Lys requirement of gilts with 350 g of lean gain per day. Diets were formulated on the AA values for soybean meal (NRC, 1998) and on actual AA analysis (Table 3) of the nonwaxy and waxy corns. Amino acids were determined after acid hydrolysis (AOAC, 1990). Total sulfur AA were determined after performic acid oxidation followed by acid hydrolysis (AOAC, 1990). Tryptophan was determined after alkaline hydrolysis (AOAC, 1990). Crude protein, crude fat, starch, and DM content were determined using near infrared transmission spectroscopy as described by Siska and Hurburgh (1995), based on calibrations for moisture, protein, starch, and oil established by the Federal Grain Inspection Service.
The treatment diets were fed from an initial BW of 37.7 kg to slaughter at a BW of 100.0 kg. All pigs were switched from the growing to early-finishing diet at an average weight of 59.7 kg, and from the early-finishing to the late-finishing diet at an average weight of 80.5 kg. The experiment lasted 80 d.
Plasma or Serum Metabolites
In Exp. 1 and 2, all pigs were bled from the anterior vena cava and serum was analyzed for urea N (Laborde et al., 1995) at trial initiation, with 24 h of diet changes, and at trial termination. Pigs were allowed unlimited access to feed before bleeding. In Exp. 2, plasma was analyzed for NEFA, triacylglycerols, total and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, insulin (in fed pigs and in pigs held without feed), and total protein at the termination of the trial. For determination of insulin, blood samples were taken after a 24-h period without feed. Pigs then were allowed to consume feed for approximately 2 h and a second blood sample was taken. Within 3 h of collection, blood was centrifuged at 1,600 x g for 20 min at 4°C. Separated serum or plasma was decanted into plastic snap cap tubes and stored at -20°C until analyzed. Nonesterified fatty acids concentrations (NEFA-C Kit, ACS-ACOD Method; Wako Chemicals USA, Richmond, VA), triacylglycerols (Sigma Kit #339-20; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO), and total cholesterol (Sigma Kit #352-100) were determined by enzymatic-colorimetric procedures. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol was determined using HDL (Sigma Kit #352-1) and cholesterol kits (Sigma Kit #352-100). Insulin was determined using a RIA kit (Insulin RIA Kit #TKIN2, Diagnostics Product Corp., Los Angeles, CA; intraassay CV = 0.98). Total protein was determined by the method of Laborde et al. (1995).
Carcass Data
At the termination of the trials, two pigs per pen were randomly selected and transported to the LSU Agricultural Center Meats Laboratory for slaughter. Pigs were slaughtered by exsanguination after electrical stunning, and hot carcass weight was measured so that dressing percentage could be calculated. Carcass measurements and values from TOBEC (model MQI-27: Meat Quality Inc., Springfield, IL) analysis for calculating fat-free lean and fat contents in the carcass were obtained after a 20-h chill at 2°C from the center side of the carcass (Higbie et al., 2002). Initial lean content of the pigs was estimated by the method of Brannaman et al. (1984) for calculation of lean gain per day. The carcass and meat quality measurements (obtained from the center side of the carcass) included longissimus muscle area, 10th-rib and average (average of first- and last-rib and last-lumbar fat thickness) backfat thicknesses, carcass length, muscle score, and NPPC (1991) pork quality scores. Percentage of muscling also was determined by the equation described by NPPC (1991), which uses an estimate of 5% intramuscular fat and compensates for unequal BW.
Meat Quality Data
Approximately 45 min and 24 h after slaughter, pH and temperature were obtained from the right side of the carcass in the center of the longissimus muscle between the 3rd and 4th ribs in Exp. 1, and between the 10th and 11th ribs in Exp. 2. A longissimus section (from 8th to 10th ribs) was removed and color (L*, a*, b*; Minolta spectrophotometer model CM-508d; Minolta Corp., Ramsey, NJ) and NPPC (1991) quality scores were taken on the longissimus muscle at the 10th-rib interface. A 2.54-cm section of the 9th-rib chop was then removed and drip loss was determined by the method of Kauffman et al. (1986) in Exp. 1, and by a suspension method in Exp. 2. With the suspension method, the longissimus muscle of the 9th-rib chop was removed, trimmed of fat, weighed, suspended by a hook in a 10.8- x 21.6-cm Whirl-Pak bag, sealed, and stored at 2°C. After 24 h, the longissimus muscle was weighed and drip loss was calculated.
Statistical Analysis
Growth performance, carcass traits, pork quality, and serum and plasma data were analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedures of SAS (SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC) as a randomized complete block design. The pen of pigs served as the experimental unit for all data, and treatments differences were considered significant at alpha = 0.10. Time of collection had a significant effect on muscle pH and temperature and therefore was used as a covariate for pH and temperature in Exp. 1. Time of collection did not have a significant influence on muscle pH or temperature and was not used as a covariate in Exp. 2. Final BW was significant for the carcass data in Exp. 1 and was used as a covariate for all carcass data. Initial serum urea N was used as a covariate for all urea N data (Coma et al., 1995). In Exp. 1, orthogonal single-df contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effects of dietary addition of sucrose.
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Results
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Experiment 1
No gender effects or diet x gender interactions were observed for growth traits; therefore, data were combined across genders and will be discussed in terms of diet effects only. Average daily gain and gain:feed ratio for the entire growing-finishing period were linearly increased by added sucrose (Table 4, P < 0.02). Neither ADFI nor serum urea N (Table 4) were altered by diet in any of the individual phases of growth.
Gender effects (P < 0.10) were observed. Gilts had greater longissimus muscle area, percentage of muscling and lean, and lean:fat ratio but lesser 10th-rib backfat thickness, percentage of fat, and marbling score than barrows (data not shown). There were no diet x gender interactions; therefore, carcass data are discussed on the basis of diet effects only. Dietary sucrose addition did not affect any carcass trait measured (Table 5).
Pork quality characteristics (45-min pH and temperature, 24-h pH and temperature, and NPPC [1991] color, firmness–wetness, and marbling scores) were not affected by diet (Table 6). The L* value was not affected by sucrose addition, but the a* and b* values and drip loss were increased linearly by sucrose addition (P < 0.06).
Experiment 2
Average daily gain was greater in pigs fed waxy corn (Table 7, P < 0.08) than for pigs fed nonwaxy corn. Average daily feed intake, gain:feed ratio, and serum urea N, NEFA, triacylglycerols, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, insulin (fasted and fed), and total plasma protein concentrations were not affected by diet (Table 7).
Corn type (waxy vs. nonwaxy) did not affect any carcass traits measured except carcass weight (P < 0.07) and length (Table 8, P < 0.03). Pork quality characteristics (45-min pH and temperature, 24-h pH and temperature, and NPPC [1991] color, firmness–wetness, and marbling scores) were not affected by diet (Table 9). The L* and b* values and drip loss were not affected by diet, but the a* value was greater (P < 0.08) for pigs fed waxy corn.
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Discussion
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The purpose of Exp. 1 was to evaluate responses to addition of a more available dietary CHO source on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality of pigs. The increase in growth performance of pigs fed diets containing sucrose was consistent with previous research (Brooks et al., 1972; Schumacher et al., 1986; Beech et al., 1990). However, Beech et al. (1991a,b) detected no positive effect on growth performance, but they did report an increased energy utilization.
Carbohydrate has been reported to have a protein-sparing effect (Fuller et al., 1977), and increasing the amount of available CHO in the diet increases N retention. Also, glucose specifically inhibits protein degradation (Fulks et al., 1975). Therefore, increasing the supply of available CHO in the diet would be expected to have a beneficial effect on carcass traits. Schumacher et al. (1986) reported that sucrose improved dressing percentage and reduced fat thickness. In contrast, we detected no advantage in carcass traits or plasma urea N of adding sucrose to the diet. Our diets were formulated to be isoenergetic since sucrose replaced fat and corn in the diet; in previous research, sucrose inclusion has often increased dietary energy density, which in turn could have positively affected carcass traits. Beech et al. (1991a,b) reported that dietary sucrose did not affect protein retention.
Pork quality was not affected by sucrose other than for some minor changes in color and an increase in drip loss. The reason for the increase in drip loss is unclear and not in agreement with Fernandez et al. (1992), who detected no effect of sucrose on drip loss or muscle glycogen in pigs. In their study, the sucrose was fed for only 12 d.
Research results conflict on the benefits of feeding waxy vs. nonwaxy grain to pigs. Our results indicate that waxy corn can improve growth performance of growing-finishing pigs. This increase in growth performance of pigs fed waxy corn supports the suggestion that amylopectin is more rapidly or fully available than amylose (Rooney and Pflugfelder, 1986; Granfeldt et al., 1993). However, previous research with waxy corn has shown little or no positive or negative effect on growth performance of pigs (Wahlstrom et al., 1977; Johnston and Anderson, 1996; Swantek et al., 1996). Waxy sorghum has improved growth performance of pigs in some studies (Cohen and Tanksley, 1973; Purser and Tanksley, 1978) but not in others (Myer and Gorbet, 1985; Froetschner et al., 1998). Response to waxy sorghum in some instances may be due to the lower energy value of sorghum compared with corn (NRC, 1998), and the positive responses may be an indication that waxy grains have a higher energy availability than nonwaxy grains. The positive response we obtained from waxy corn also may be due to higher energy availability because our pigs had a greater capacity for lean growth than pigs used in previous research, and thus a greater energy need.
Waxy corn did not affect carcass traits. These data are not in agreement with those of Swantek et al. (1996), who reported that pigs fed waxy corn had reduced 10th-rib fat thickness. An increase in available CHO would not be expected to reduce fat deposition, even if the diet were limiting in energy for protein accretion.
Pork quality was not affected by waxy corn except for some changes in color and drip loss that were similar to those observed with sucrose. Drip loss was significantly increased by 26% in Exp. 1 by sucrose addition and was numerically increased by 34% in Exp. 2 by waxy corn. The magnitude of response was greater in Exp. 2. Although the methodology was different from that used in Exp. 1, the lack of significance was due to an increased variability in Exp. 2. Thus, it seems that increased availability of CHO may increase drip loss in pork. However, our response from sucrose is not in agreement with data of Fernandez et al. (1992).
Serum and plasma metabolites were not affected by waxy corn in our experiment. To our knowledge, there are no published data on the effect of waxy grains on blood metabolites in pigs. In addition, the majority of the data in humans and rats has compared "normal" starch (approximately 75% amylopectin and 25% amylose) vs. high amylose starch, not "normal" starch with waxy or 100% amylopectin grain. Byrnes et al. (1995) and Higgins et al. (1996) reported that starch in the form of amylopectin increased plasma glucose and insulin concentrations and insulin insensitivity in rats. Similarly, van Amelsvoort and Westrate (1992) reported that high amylopectin diets increased plasma glucose and insulin in humans after a meal, but these changes in concentrations varied with postprandial time. Plasma FFA also were increased by the high-amylopectin diet. We have no explanation for the disparity in our results compared with the results in rats and humans. However, unpublished data from our laboratory indicated that pigs do not develop insulin insensitivity when fed waxy sorghum vs. nonwaxy sorghum for extended periods. These results also differ from those reported for humans (Byrnes et al., 1995).
In conclusion, increasing the amount of available dietary CHO increased ADG but did not detrimentally affect carcass traits or meat quality, with the exception of some minor changes in drip loss and color by dietary sucrose addition.
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Implications
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Sucrose or high-amylopectin corn can be used as energy substitutes for corn in pigs with no detrimental effects on carcass traits, and may potentially improve growth performance.
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Footnotes
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1 Approved for publication by the director of the Louisiana Agric. Exp. Stn. as publication No. 02-18-0749. 
2 The authors would like to thank F. LeMieux, M. Persica, J. Carothers, L. Johnston, J. Shelton, E. Shelton, J. Matthews, A. Guzik, and R. Payne for assistance with data collection and laboratory analyses.
3 International Ingredients (St. Louis, MO) and Pioneer Hi-Bred International Crop Genetics (Johnston, IA) supported this research by supplying ingredients.
4 Correspondence—lsouthern{at}agctr.lsu.edu.
Received for publication November 13, 2002.
Accepted for publication June 3, 2003.
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Abstract
Introduction
